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Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL15 N2, TD3

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

VOL16 N1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325

Editorial. Presentation and Framing – Şefika Şule Erçetin e Luis Tomé – pp. 2-5

ARTICLES

Development of information literacy in history and civic education as a 21st- century

leadership skill - Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor & János Setényi – pp. 6-19

Multicultural Perspectives and Global Leadership in Higher Education - Pusat Pilten &

Gülhiz Pilten – pp. 20-35

Management Styles and Organizational Intelligence. Level of Higher Education

Administrators - Dilek Yörük – pp. 36-51

Digital Tools In Second Language Learning In Higher Education: A Systematic Review Of

Recent Research - Seçkin Esen – pp. 52-63

The European Higher Education Alliances: the challenges of transnational university

cooperation - Concepción Anguita Olmedo – pp. 64-84

Higher Education from an Inclusive Governance Perspective: Expanding the Boundaries

of Social Justice - Nilay Neyişçi – pp. 85-99

Nurturing and Upbringing; the Forgotten Aspect in Curriculum Development and

Implementation at Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) - Miiro Faroq & Baguma K. Grace

– pp. 100-116

Exploring Plasma Leadership in Turkish Universities: A Document-Based Administrative

Perspective - Handan Ege & Şefika Şule Erçetin – pp. 117-132

Globalizing the Indian Higher Education: A Critical Appraisal - Vesselin Popovski & Rajat

Shandilya – pp. 133-149

Internationalization of Higher Education and Public Policy: Advances and Setbacks in the

Strategic Actions for the International Integration of Brazilian Universities - Jackson

Bentes & José Alberto – pp. 150-163

An Examination and Validation of Social And Emotional Learning Skills Among University

Students in Uganda - Miiro Farooq – pp. 164-189

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

EDITORIAL

ŞEFIKA ŞULE ERÇETIN

sefikasule@gmail.com

Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Education at Hacettepe University (Türkiye). In 1991, she

completed her Phd from Division of Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning, and

Economics in Hacettepe University. She has been working as a professor since 2003. She has

worked as visiting scholar in Texas A&M, USA and Lancaster University, UK. In 2021, she

founded Management of Higher Education Division and Master program in Hacettepe University.

Prof. Erçetin has worked in many national and international projects as a member of project

team project coordinator on education of refugees, women, vocational training. Her main

research fields are comparative education policies, research methods, organizational intelligence

and stupidity and wisdom, leadership, migration, fuzzy logic, children at risk, women and peace

studies, quantum leadership, women leadership model. Also, she is the president and founder

member of the International Science Association in Türkiye (ISCASS). She is the editor in chief of

different national and international journals which focuses on leadership and education.

LUIS TOMÉ

ltome@autonoma.pt

Full Professor at Autónoma University of Lisbon, UAL (Portugal), where he is Head for

Internationalization and Director of the Department of International Relations. He is also Director

of the research unit OBSERVARE-Observatory of Foreign Relations, and of Janus.net, e-journal of

international relations. Senior Researcher at the Portuguese Institute of International Relations

(IPRI-Nova). Member of the Thematic Assessment Committee of the Portuguese Agency for

Assessment and Accreditation of Higher Education (A3ES) in the scientific field of Political Science

and International Relations. Professor Luis Tomé has been a visiting professor at La Sapienza

Universitá di Roma–Italy, the University of Macau-China, the Middle East Technical University

(METU) of Ankara- Türkiye, National Defense Institute of East Timor, as also at the Portuguese

Military University Institute (IUM), National Defense Institute (IDN) and Higher Institute of Police

Sciences and Homeland Security (ISCPSI). He has a degree in International Relations from the

Autónoma University of Lisbon (UAL), a Masters in Strategy from the Institute of Social and

Political Sciences (ISCSP) of Lisbon University and a PhD in International Relations from the

Faculty of Economics of University of Coimbra (FEUC).

How to cite this editorial

Erçetin, Şefika Şule & Tomé, Luís (2025). Editorial - Presentation and Framing. Janus.net, e-journal

of international relations. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1 –

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges, June

2025, pp. 2-5. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325ED.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 2-5

Editorial – Şefika Şule Erçetin, Luís Tomé

EDITORIAL

PRESENTATION AND FRAMING

ŞEFIKA ŞULE ERÇETIN

LUIS TOMÉ

In recent decades, the internationalization of higher education has emerged as a central

theme in global academic discourse. As universities and academic institutions around the

world increasingly operate beyond national borders, the need to examine the

implications, practices, and outcomes of internationalization has become both urgent and

complex. Internationalization, in the context of higher education, refers not only to the

mobility of students, faculty, and academic programs, but also to the integration of

international dimensions into curricula, research agendas, institutional strategies, and

campus cultures. It encompasses policies and practices designed to enhance global

engagement, foster intercultural understanding, and prepare graduates to operate in

increasingly interconnected societies. However, internationalization is not a neutral or

universally beneficial process. It reflects broader dynamics of globalization, power

relations, economic inequalities, and cultural negotiations that shape how it is

experienced and implemented across different contexts. Effective leadership in this

context must not only enable global engagement but also prioritize equity, diversity, and

ethical responsiveness to global challenges.

While internationalization remains a cornerstone of higher education reform, it is

increasingly entangled with broader structural challenges that institutions worldwide

must address. What was once predominantly framed by national systems and local

priorities is now significantly influenced by international pressures and transnational

governance frameworks. The rise of global university rankings, cross-border knowledge

economies, international accreditation mechanisms, and digitally mediated academic

mobility has profoundly reshaped both the strategic aspirations and organizational

configurations of universities.

Contemporary higher education operates within a dynamic and often volatile global

landscape shaped by intersecting technological, social, political, and demographic

transformations. In this climate of accelerated change, Artificial Intelligence and digital

transformation are exerting growing influence over pedagogical practices, administrative

processes, and knowledge production. These developments require not only technological

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 2-5

Editorial – Şefika Şule Erçetin, Luís Tomé

adaptation but also conceptual rethinking. Within this framework, the concept of

quantum leadership has emerged—a non-linear, holistic, and adaptive approach aligned

with the complex realities confronting internationally engaged universities.

The expanding international responsibilities of universities—particularly in domains such

as climate change, migration, peace-building, and global citizenship—necessitate a

reexamination of the core missions of higher education. Universities are increasingly

expected to serve as agents of social transformation, embedding internationalization

within broader goals of equity, sustainability, and human development. While these

responsibilities entail complex challenges, they also present compelling opportunities for

fostering intercultural dialogue, enhancing global competencies, and driving societal

innovation on a global scale. Through inclusive governance structures that are

participatory, reflective, and ethically grounded, higher education institutions can

respond to global imperatives while modeling values-based leadership in times of

uncertainty.

This thematic dossier, titled Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and

Challenges, brings together a series of eleven scholarly articles that explore the

multifaceted nature of internationalization in higher education, offering critical insights

into its driving forces, lived realities, and the pressing challenges it entails. It features

contributions that interrogate both the opportunities and tensions inherent in the

internationalization process. Rather than conceptualizing internationalization as a fixed

policy model, this issue examines it as a fluid, context-sensitive process intersecting with

digital transformation, demographic transitions, geopolitical volatility, and institutional

complexity.

By integrating theoretical, empirical, and practice-oriented perspectives, this issue

advances a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of internationalization in a

post-pandemic, AI-mediated, and globally uncertain era. Beyond identifying disruptions

and contradictions, the contributions underscore the resilience, creativity, and

adaptability of higher education institutions. Examples include the proliferation of globally

integrated hybrid programs, enhanced international research collaborations, and the

widespread adoption of learner-centered digital pedagogies. These developments

illustrate the transformative potential of internationalization to stimulate institutional

innovation, nurture global citizenship, and build inclusive academic communities.

The articles compiled in this dossier approach the theme from a variety of disciplinary,

methodological, and geographical perspectives. Indeed, the authors come from diverse

academic fields — ranging from Education Sciences to International Relations, and from

Law to Public Administration — and are affiliated with various higher education

institutions across different countries, including Bulgaria, Brazil, Spain, Hungary, India,

Kazakhstan, Portugal, Türkiye, and Uganda. Together, they aim to contribute to a deeper

understanding of how internationalization unfolds in practice, what it means for students,

educators, and institutions, and how it can be navigated responsibly and ethically.

In bringing together these varied contributions, this dossier does not seek to provide

definitive answers but to open space for critical dialogue. It underscores the importance

of viewing internationalization not as an abstract ideal or a one-size-fits-all strategy, but

as a contested and evolving process that must be examined in context. As institutions

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 2-5

Editorial – Şefika Şule Erçetin, Luís Tomé

continue to grapple with shifting geopolitical realities, technological change, and

reconfigurations of academic life, the questions raised in this dossier are more relevant

than ever.

As co-editors of this thematic dossier, we are deeply grateful to all 18 authors who

generously agreed to share their knowledge, experiences, and perspectives through the

eleven articles that follow. Gratitude is also extended to the scientific reviewers, whose

recommendations contributed to further enhancing the quality of the articles, as well as

to the entire editorial team of the esteemed scientific journal Janus.net, which is

responsible for publishing this thematic dossier. To all, our heartfelt thanks for the honor

and privilege of your collaboration in this truly collective and transnational endeavor.

This issue invites scholars, administrators, and policymakers to engage critically and

constructively with the values, structures, and strategies shaping the future of higher

education. The focus extends beyond navigating uncertainty to envisioning and building

sustainable, equitable, and forward-thinking models of global academic engagement. We

invite readers to engage with the articles that follow with an open and critical mindset,

and to reflect on how internationalization can be reimagined in ways that enrich higher

education while advancing global responsibility, equity, and mutual learning.

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION LITERACY IN HISTORY AND CIVIC

EDUCATION AS A 21ST-CENTURY LEADERSHIP SKILL

ÁRON FEKETE

aron.fekete@mcc.hu

PhD, Mathias Corvinus Collegium (Hungary). Learning Institute, Project Manager

RICHÁRD FODOR

fodor.richard@mcc.hu

Mathias Corvinus Collegium, Learning Institute, Head of Research (Hungary). Pázmány Péter

Catholic University, Lecturer

JÁNOS SETÉNYI

janos.setenyi@mcc.hu

PhD, Mathias Corvinus Collegium, Learning Institute, Director (Hungary)

Abstract

The information revolution of the 21st century brought several significant changes in the field

of education, among many the spread of WEB 2.0, MOOC systems and artificial intelligence

ultimately further blurring the line between the digital-analogue world. In this context history

and civic education have become even more significant, giving information and media literacy

a more prominent role. It should be the role of teacher training institutes to prepare future

educators to tackle challenges and build on new opportunities. The concept of digital

citizenship appears in the literature and curricular development goals, which also implies the

ethical, responsible and safe possession and application of digital literacy and media literacy

competences in both secondary and tertiary education (Erdem et al, 2022). Our study explores

the relationship between media literacy, digital literacy and digital citizenship competences in

the field of history and civic education. During the content analysis of the literature, global

and EU strategy reports, we examined the most important challenges and objectives

formulated in the topic. The results include the increasing role of information and media

literacy since the 2010s, the approaches to citizenship education and a model of the key

concepts in the title in the form of a competence network.

Keywords

Information Literacy, Media Literacy, Civic Education, Digital Pedagogy, Disinformation,

Leadership Skills.

Resumo

A revolução informacional do século XXI provocou transformações profundas no domínio da

educação, entre as quais se destacam a disseminação da Web 2.0, a emergência dos sistemas

de ensino massivo aberto online (MOOC) e o avanço da inteligência artificial, contribuindo

para esbater ainda mais a fronteira entre os mundos digital e analógico. Neste novo

paradigma, as áreas da História e da Educação para a Cidadania assumem uma relevância

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

acrescida, conferindo à literacia informacional e mediática um papel central no

desenvolvimento das competências cívicas dos cidadãos. Por conseguinte, compete às

Instituições de Ensino Superior dotar os futuros professores das ferramentas necessárias para

enfrentarem os desafios e explorarem as oportunidades proporcionadas pelas novas

tecnologias e práticas educativas. O conceito de cidadania digital encontra-se amplamente

representado na literatura especializada, bem como nos objetivos de desenvolvimento

curricular, implicando a aquisição e aplicação ética, responsável e segura das competências

associadas à literacia digital e mediática, tanto no ensino secundário como no ensino superior.

O presente estudo analisa a inter-relação entre literacia mediática, literacia digital e

competências de cidadania digital no âmbito do ensino da História e da Educação para a

Cidadania. Com base na análise de conteúdo da literatura relevante e dos relatórios

estratégicos, tanto a nível global como da União Europeia, identificam-se os principais desafios

e metas delineados nesta área. Os resultados evidenciam, entre outros aspetos, o papel

crescente da literacia informacional e mediática desde a década de 2010, as abordagens

contemporâneas à educação para a cidadania e um modelo conceptual dos temas em estudo,

estruturado sob a forma de uma rede de competências interligadas.

Palavras-chave

Literacia da Informação, Literacia dos Meios de Comunicação Social, Educação Cívica,

Pedagogia Digital, Desinformação, Competências de Liderança.

How to cite this article

Fekete, Áron, Fodor, Richárd & Setényi, János (2025). Development of Information Literacy in

History and Civic Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill. Janus.net, e-journal of international

relations. Thematic Dossier - Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges.

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June 2025, pp. 6-98. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.1.

Article submitted on 7 April 2025 and accepted for publication on 2 May 2025.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION LITERACY IN HISTORY AND

CIVIC EDUCATION AS A 21ST-CENTURY LEADERSHIP SKILL

ÁRON FEKETE

RICHÁRD FODOR

JÁNOS SETÉNYI

Introduction

Over a quarter of a century, the 21st century has witnessed an abundance of

technological innovations that have profoundly impacted both education and society at

large. The digital sphere and various algorithms are not only capable of influencing

elections (e.g., the Cambridge Analytica scandal) or inciting violence against religious

minorities (Harari, 2024), but also significantly facilitate the translation of texts,

plagiarism, and access to information. It is therefore unsurprising that attitudes toward

artificial intelligence among educators and researchers span a broad spectrum—from

techno-optimism to outright rejection (Zompetti et al., 2024). Due to the pace of

technological advancement, some scholars have begun to replace the notion of digital

literacy with that of AI literacy, which emphasizes the critical and reflective use of artificial

intelligence (Long & Magerko, 2020). In this study, however, we do not distinguish

between AI literacy and media literacy, as both encompass the ethical, responsible, and

safe acquisition and application of digital competencies (Erdem et al., 2022).

The COVID-19 pandemic changed global conditions and highlighted the critical role of

leadership in navigating uncertainty, transformation, and chaos. In this new reality,

leadership increasingly demands skills like information literacy, enabling individuals to

access, evaluate, and apply information responsibly amid rapid change. As part of the

essential toolkit for 21st-century digital citizenship, information literacy empowers

leaders to make informed decisions and foster resilient, adaptable communities (Erçetin

& Açıkalın, 2025).

Although students—often referred to as digital natives—are immersed in digital media

daily, they frequently lack the sub-skills essential for responsible and deliberate

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

technology use. For educators, the absence of adequate training often poses a significant

challenge in fostering both their own and their students’ digital competencies. On a more

positive note, recent years have seen a shift toward the integration of digital citizenship

into educational curricula, particularly within the field of civic education. This integration

aims to equip students with fundamental competencies for engaging in the digital sphere,

such as ethics—that is, appropriate, safe, and responsible internet use —information and

media literacy, political and civic participation, and the capacity for critical resistance

(Moonsun, 2016). Accordingly, this paper examines the educational policy objectives and

pedagogical practices that have emerged regarding digital literacy, history education,

and citizenship education, both in Hungary and in international contexts.

Theoretical background

The concept associated with information literacy is now nearly half a century old (Tóth,

2024), and as such, it has undergone numerous revisions over the past decades.

Although several attempts have been made to establish a unified definition, no

universally accepted interpretation has emerged. Nonetheless, the ongoing discourse has

drawn attention to the fundamental aspects of the field (Leaning, 2017). Accordingly,

most authors define the concept as the competent use of technology, information, and

its sources, as well as critical thinking skills (Koltay & Szőke-Milinte, 2020; Fedorov &

Mikhaleva, 2020; Rahim, A. & Indah, M., 2024). These foundational understandings of

information literacy provide a crucial framework for interpreting contemporary

developments in the digital age. As the sociotechnical landscape continues to evolve, it

becomes increasingly important to reassess how these core competencies are applied in

practice. The growing complexity of digital environments—shaped by algorithms, artificial

intelligence, and the proliferation of online content—demands an expanded perspective

on what it means to be information literate in the 21st century.

Information and Media Literacy in European Policy Documents and

Educational Guidelines

Following the turn of the millennium, the growing impact of technological development

on education and the labor market became almost immediately noticeable within the

European Union. One of the first signs of this was that, in 2002, the European Training

Foundation and the European Council assigned the application of information and

communication technologies among the key competences (Bognár, 2002; Szabó, 2023).

From 2003 onward, these changes also began to emerge in the educational systems of

several Central European countries — at that time not yet EU members — including

Hungary. In Hungary, the National Core Curriculum already incorporates digital

competencies to be developed within the subject of history, focusing on skills related to

recognizing, retrieving, and evaluating information (Fekete, 2025).

A significant milestone in this trajectory was the Paris Declaration of 2015, in which

educational actors identified four priority areas for education: (1) fostering social, civic,

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

and intercultural competences; (2) promoting critical thinking and media literacy; (3)

improving the education of disadvantaged children; and (4) promoting intercultural

dialogue (European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, 2016).

The European Council's framework for the development of digital competence,

DigCompEdu, includes information and media literacy among the key competences.

Developed by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission, the

DigCompEdu framework was first introduced in 2013 and updated in 2017 to reflect the

changing needs of European citizens. (Fodor, 2024)

In March 2019, the Second Survey of Schools: ICT in Education was conducted at the

request of the European Commission to examine the use of digital technologies in EU

education systems, based on data from 400 schools per country. As a follow-up to the

2011 study, the longitudinal analysis showed progress in several areas over eight years.

The report also identified a model called ‘Highly equipped and connected classroom’

establishing three scenarios with costs of technological equipment, network and

professional development for educators of EU classrooms (European Commission,

Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, 2019).

The survey identified several key issues, such as the lack of skills of both students and

educators concerning digital content development, the absence of thorough in-service

and pre-service training for teachers, of whom only 12% had a proper ICT course at

university. Analysis of Hungarian data from the survey also highlighted this obstacle.

Following COVID and the distance learning period in Hungary the education government

implemented a reform in teacher training. The new policies brought compulsory courses

and programmes related to both majors of teacher candidates

, alongside general digital

instructional support and information literacy courses introduced. The new programmes

are already present at universities, however, institutions are autonomous in developing

their own approaches and strategies.

One of the most significant outcomes of the EU Commission survey was the lack of

disciplinary models adaptable by teachers (European Commission, Directorate-General

for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, 2019). It is clear that there are

general principles and ideas for digital redefinition of analogue learning (Puentedura,

2013) while pedagogical background is also set for learning and teaching (European

Commission, 2021). On the other hand, both theoretical models and practical methods,

techniques, tasks and platforms of digital learning in separate disciplinary contexts are

still scarce with only handful of explorers in the field of history education (Breakstone et

al, 2021; Cantabrana et al. 2022; Hajdarović, 2023).

Hungarian teacher trainees must choose two majors (e.g. history and a foreign language) which are studied

parallel psychological and education related courses for five years including several field practices organised in

schools.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

Changing role and toolkit of civic education

Although citizenship education has been a foundational element of schooling, the

emergence of the digital citizen marks a contemporary shift in how civic identity is

understood and promoted in educational theory and policy. Since its development in the

17th century, the roles and objectives of citizenship education have gone through

countless stages of development in response to changing challenges in Europe and

Hungary in particular.

The conscious and intentional education of the civic community was reintroduced after

ancient times, the Enlightenment and it was developed further with the formation of

nation-states. It played a prominent role in the enlightened absolutist monarchies of

Central Europe. In Hungary, it appeared in curricula and classrooms as Historical

geography, later with the title of History and Social studies, as Constitutional studies and

as Foundations of our worldview during the period of the communist dictatorship (Kaposi

2019; Jakab, 2019).

Gábor Halász identifies the rediscovery of the need for civic education after the fall of

communism in Central Europe as the interplay of several factors. First, the end of Eastern

European dictatorships and emerging difficulties of young democracies, the phenomena

of globalisation, the acceleration of European integration, and the experience of the

ethnic-nationalist civil war reappearing in Europe (Halász, 2005). The subject of

citizenship education was introduced as a compulsory subject in England in 2002 after a

long process that began in the 1990s, based on the work of the British professor Bernard

Crick (Advisory Group on Citizenship, 1998). Independent thinking, activity, critical, and

objective student attitudes played an emphatic role in the emerging civic competence,

which sees the role of student participation not in the future, but already in the present

(Kaposi, 2019).

Joel Westheimer and Joseph Kahne (2004) identify three distinct stages of citizenship:

the (1) personally responsible citizen, the (2) participatory citizen, and the (3) justice-

oriented citizen. The personally responsible citizen is characterised by adherence to laws

and social norms, personal responsibility within the community, and generally positively

characterised acts such as working, paying taxes, recycling, donating blood, or

volunteering in times of crisis. The participatory citizen goes a step further, engaging

actively in civic life by joining community organisations, initiating projects to support

those in need, or fostering economic development. This model assumes a deeper

understanding of how governmental institutions function. At the highest level of this

framework stands the justice-oriented citizen, who critically examines social, political,

and economic structures. Rather than focusing solely on surface-level problems, this ideal

citizen seeks to understand underlying systemic issues, identify injustices, and engage

with democratic movements aiming for structural change.

Moonsun (2016) also introduces three approaches to citizenship education: (1) traditional

(or national), (2) critical, and (3) digital. The traditional model focuses on clearly defined

social and economic rights and duties, through which individuals become "good citizens"

by conforming to national expectations. The critical model emerged in response to civil

rights movements in the United States, emphasising the development of multicultural

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

and global identities and giving voice to ethnic, linguistic, religious, and cultural

minorities. The third and most recent stage is digital citizenship, which reflects the

transformative impact of digital technologies on civic life. Moonsun (2016) outlines four

core competencies for digital citizens: (1) ethical, safe, and responsible internet use; (2)

information and media literacy; (3) civic and political engagement; (4) critical resistance.

In the framework proposed by Erdem et al. (2022), digital citizenship supports the

higher-order dimensions of citizenship education. Moving beyond earlier models that

focused primarily on normative behaviour, contemporary citizenship now encompasses

cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills as well. Thus, citizenship education is

undergoing a significant transformation. It no longer solely concerns legal and social

responsibilities or conformity to civic norms. Instead, it now incorporates digital

behaviours shaped by the Web 2.0 environment and promotes the development of

interconnected digital competencies.

According to the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), digital

citizenship involves students' ability to recognise the rights, responsibilities, and

opportunities of living, learning, and working in an interconnected digital and analogue

world. It entails acting in safe, legal, and ethical ways (ISTE, 2023). ISTE standards

emphasise that digitally literate students understand the implications of their online

presence, the significance of digital security, and the risks of data collection technologies.

They are equipped to use digital tools ethically, respect intellectual property rights, and

share information responsibly.

Fodor et al. (2023) highlight the diverse nature of both history and citizenship education

in a comparative analysis of national regulatory frameworks. Among 16 European and

Asian countries

all of the European nations have compulsory civic education without

compulsory school leaving examination in the subject. On the other hand, declared

objectives of development vary greatly from country to country. Education for democratic

values and ideas are shared by all analysed curricula, but explicit further goals as

sustainability, and financial knowledge vary. Among the countries of the research only

Checzia, Hungary, Ireland, Austria, China and Turkey highlight digital competence and

information literacy development (Fodor, Tõhn, Máté, 2023).

The COVID pandemic and the unsettling American political events focused global

attention on the threats of misinformation. The European Commission has published a

Digital Educational Action Plan for the period 2021-2027, which aims to support digital

citizenship by developing digital literacy and tackling misinformation.

The main findings of the report include: (1) A significant number of initiatives on this

topic take a technological approach to digital literacy and pay little attention to critical

thinking. (2) Awareness of the role and dangers of the media is still low among teachers

and parents. (3) Information literacy and digital competence development are not

emphasised in the training of teachers in Europe.

Armenia, China, Czechia, England, France, Hungary, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Poland, Scotland,

Slovakia, Turkey.

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Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

The report places great emphasis on the development of effective educational resources

that can support information and digital literacy, and understanding of controversial

historical and current issues.

Based on the report, a guide for teachers with the same title (Guidelines for teachers and

educators on tackling disinformation and promoting digital literacy through education and

training) was also produced. The textbook-like digital volume contains both theoretical

and practical aspects. In one of its chapters, it presents the basic concepts of the topic,

including disinformation, deepfakes, algorithms, digital citizenship, digital literacy, etc.)

It also includes short summaries of teaching and learning strategies, such as the flipped

classroom, blended learning, and gamification.

Picture 1. The relationship between misinformation, disinformation and malinformation

Source: European Commission, (2022)

Picture 2 - Digital proficiency levels

Source: European Commission, 2022, 38

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Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

An important chapter of the guide is built on the differences between misinformation,

disinformation, and malinformation. Practical techniques include examining students'

digital footprints, checking the source of facts and news, distinguishing between facts

and opinions, discerning the difference between the processes of censorship and freedom

of the press, and discussing conspiracy theories.

The guide also focuses on the measurement of digital competence. By partially

simplifying the proficiency levels, DigCompEdu formulates three aspects: task

complexity, learner autonomy, and cognitive level. Based on these, it distinguishes

between basic, intermediate and advanced task levels.

Development of information literacy in history education

As we outlined in the previous chapters, the accelerated digitalization triggered by the

COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly impacted all levels and domains of education.

However, the growing dominance of online sources in history education was already

observable before the pandemic. This trend also manifested in research projects in

history textbooks, where it became increasingly clear that textbook authors encouraged

students to search the internet rather than conduct library-based research. Academic

literature also responded to these changes; several authors had already emphasized the

need to foster information literacy in history lessons, particularly since students during

this period frequently relied on Wikipedia as their primary source of information (Walsh,

2008; Engel-Fekete, 2023).

Since 2020, however, the opportunities and challenges presented by artificial intelligence

have become increasingly central to scholarly discourse surrounding the humanities. It

is undeniable that AI offers substantial support in reconstructing historical objects and

texts, as well as in certain aspects of pedagogical work, such as lesson planning and

worksheet development (Kőműves, 2024). Furthermore, large language models facilitate

the generation of visual illustrations corresponding to various historical periods. As a

result, many historians consider artificial intelligence a valuable tool (Kansteiner, 2022;

Sternfeld, 2023; Szabó T., 2025)

However, a study conducted in 2023 among history teachers (Hajdarovic, 2023) revealed

that participants could identify only four out of nine AI-generated texts as not being

written by a human. These findings not only highlight the growing vulnerability of teacher

assessment in the 21st century but also draw attention to a new and increasingly critical

area for the development of digital and information literacy.

Texts generated by large language models, along with various deepfake methods (e.g.,

face-swapping, puppeteering, lip-syncing, voice-cloning, and image synthesis—and other

visual disinformation strategies, pose significant challenges not only to educators. One

indication of this is the increasing frequency with which the media publishes AI-generated

images depicting fabricated or anachronistic historical events as factual. A striking

example is the circulation of an AI-generated image purportedly depicting ancient Greek

mosaics. To counteract the spread of false historical narratives and chronological

distortions, it is essential that school education supports the acquisition of fundamental

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Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

historical knowledge and the ability to accurately place historical phenomena in their

correct temporal context. However, this latter competency can be cultivated almost

exclusively through the teaching of history. (Vajda, 2018).

In addition to fostering the recognition of anachronisms, history education also offers the

opportunity to develop critical thinking, another fundamental component of information

literacy. This capacity is primarily cultivated through the analysis of historical sources in

history lessons. Nevertheless, it must be emphasized that, according to some scholars,

the methodologies traditionally used for historical source criticism, as well as certain

digital competencies, are no longer sufficient for evaluating the credibility of online

content and websites (Breakstone et al., 2025). In classroom practice, students typically

concentrate on the content of written sources and may attempt to identify the author or

the date of origin. In doing so, they tend to employ a vertical reading , approaching the

text “from the top down” (Wineburg & McGrew, 2019; Lodhi, A. K. et al., 2025). However,

this interpretive strategy can be ineffective when faced with websites spreading

disinformation, which may lack grammatical or spelling errors, use credible-sounding

domain names, and even cite various seemingly reliable sources to support their content.

According to Pimentel and others (Pimentel, D. R., 2024; McGrew, 2021; Wineburg &

McGrew, 2019), the solution could be digital civic online reasoning when training users

to verify the credibility of a given website by consulting independent sources before

engaging in a thorough analysis of its content. Nowadays, there are no widely established

methodological approaches for teaching the civic online reasoning framework; however,

its integration is becoming increasingly urgent in today's context.

Discussion

Information literacy is widely understood as the competent use of technology and

information sources, underpinned by critical thinking skills—an essential foundation for

navigating and interpreting the complexities of the digital age. Its theoretical concepts

are well known and widely repeated; however, real discussion of techniques, tasks,

methods, strategies, and the ideal formal curricular position and school time devoted to

its improvement are very rare. History and civic education may be two fruitful and

interconnected fields where the necessary skills can be acquired through historical source

analysis and fact checking recently produced information.

The evolution of citizenship education increasingly highlights the central role of

information and media literacy in preparing students for active participation in a digital

society. Educational systems must equip learners with the skills to critically evaluate

sources and navigate digital environments, which is strongly targeted by European policy

efforts.

History education provides a firm basis to learn the techniques of critically dealing with

information met in historical sources. With sufficient training, methods and strategies,

students can learn how to not only start dialogue with the past but also use their subskills

to navigate in the flood of recently produced information.

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Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

Different ideal roles and toolkits are emphasized in connection with these objectives,

thinking like a historian, fact checker or journal editor may also be applied. All of these

refer to an advanced level of cognition/consideration/logic which is a uniquely useful tool

for not only young adults, but future young leaders in particular.

A key question in today's education is whether subjects like history and civics can provide

individuals, particularly those not in the humanities, with the necessary skills to tackle

21st-century challenges. Just as with the printing press or the steam engine, we cannot

fully predict the impact AI will have on our world. Nonetheless, as educators, we should

aim to maximize its potential for positive change.

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVES AND GLOBAL LEADERSHIP IN HIGHER

EDUCATION

PUSAT PILTEN

pusatpilten@ayu.edu.kz

Associate Professor, Department of Primary Education, Faculty of Social and Humanitarian

Sciences, Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University, Turkistan (Kazakhstan)

GÜLHIZ PILTEN

gulhizpilten@ayu.edu.kz

Associate Professor, Department of Primary Education, Faculty of Social and Humanitarian

Sciences, Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University, Turkistan (Kazakhstan)

Abstract

This study analyzes the effects of globalization on higher education institutions and the role

of cultural diversity on leadership structures. With the acceleration of globalization, higher

education institutions have transformed from being mere centers of knowledge production to

dynamic social ecosystems where multicultural interactions take place. This transformation

has also necessitated the redefinition of the concept of leadership; strategic roles such as

vision development, change management, harmonization of different cultural values, and

building sustainable academic communities have come to the fore. The structure of the global

education ecosystem, the balance between global values and local cultural dynamics, and the

impact of cultural diversity on learning processes have been comprehensively addressed in

the study. In addition, multicultural leadership models, core competencies required for the

development of leadership skills, and the impact of cultural diversity on innovation and

creativity have been examined. It has also focused on how new technologies such as

digitalization and artificial intelligence have transformed leadership structures. As a result, it

has been revealed that flexible and inclusive leadership models that view cultural diversity as

a strategic advantage play a critical role in increasing the global competitiveness and

sustainability of higher education institutions. In future studies, it is recommended that in-

depth studies be conducted on the application of these models in different regional and

institutional contexts.

Keywords

Globalization, Higher Education, Cultural Diversity, Multicultural Leadership, Sustainable

Leadership.

Resumo

O presente estudo investiga os efeitos da globalização sobre as Instituições de Ensino Superior

(IES), com especial enfoque no papel da diversidade cultural nas suas estruturas de liderança.

Com a intensificação dos processos de globalização, as (IES) deixaram de ser exclusivamente

centros de produção e disseminação de conhecimento para se afirmarem como ecossistemas

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 20-35

Multicultural Perspectives and Global Leadership in Higher Education

Pusat Pilten, Gülhiz Pilten

sociais dinâmicos, caracterizados por interações multiculturais cada vez mais complexas. Esta

transformação implicou uma necessária reconfiguração do conceito de liderança, conferindo

relevo a funções estratégicas como a formulação de uma visão institucional, a gestão da

mudança, a conciliação de valores culturais distintos e a construção de comunidades

académicas sustentáveis. O estudo procede a uma análise aprofundada da estrutura do

ecossistema educacional global, procurando compreender o equilíbrio entre os valores

universais e as dinâmicas culturais locais, bem como o impacto da diversidade cultural nos

processos de ensino e aprendizagem. Foram ainda examinados modelos de liderança

multicultural, as competências essenciais para o desenvolvimento de capacidades de liderança

eficazes, e a influência da diversidade cultural na promoção da inovação e da criatividade

institucional. Paralelamente, analisou-se a forma como as novas tecnologias —

designadamente a digitalização e a inteligência artificial — têm vindo a transformar as

estruturas e práticas de liderança no contexto académico. Os resultados obtidos evidenciam

que modelos de liderança flexíveis, inclusivos e culturalmente sensíveis, que reconhecem a

diversidade como uma vantagem estratégica, desempenham um papel determinante na

consolidação da competitividade global e da sustentabilidade das instituições de ensino

superior. Com base nas conclusões alcançadas, recomenda-se, para investigações futuras, a

realização de estudos comparativos e aprofundados que explorem a aplicação destes modelos

de liderança em diferentes contextos regionais e institucionais.

Palavras-chave

Globalização, Ensino Superior, Diversidade Cultural, Liderança Multicultural, Liderança

Sustentável.

How to cite this article

Pilten, Pusat & Pilten, Gülhiz (2025). Multicultural Perspectives and Global Leadership in Higher

Education. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier - Internationalization

of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June 2025, pp. 20-35. DOI

https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.2.

Article submitted on 26

march 2025 and accepted for publication on 2 may 2025.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 20-35

Multicultural Perspectives and Global Leadership in Higher Education

Pusat Pilten, Gülhiz Pilten

MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVES AND GLOBAL LEADERSHIP

IN HIGHER EDUCATION

PUSAT PILTEN

GÜLHIZ PILTEN

Introduction

Globalization is a multidimensional process that refers to the enhanced mobility of goods,

services, information, culture and people at the international level. This process, which

has accelerated especially since the last quarter of the 20th century, has made the

boundaries between world societies more porous through economic liberalization,

technological advances, and revolutionary breakthroughs in transportation and

communication (Held & McGrew, 2007: 3). Globalization has changed not only economies

but also cultural, political, and social life. It has affected many areas, including how

people live, what they consume, how they are governed, and how they are educated

(Giddens, 1999: 7). Higher education has also been influenced by these changes.

Universities have adapted by producing knowledge in new ways, encouraging cultural

exchange, and building international partnerships.

With the impact of globalization, higher education institutions have gone beyond being

mere centers of knowledge production; they have become dynamic social ecosystems

where different cultural identities meet and multidimensional interactions take place

(Marginson, 2018: 17). This transformation has led to radical changes in many areas,

from the reshaping of institutional structures to the diversification of educational

programs, from the increase in international academic collaborations to the evolution of

social responsibility concepts. Higher education institutions are no longer structures that

provide services only within national borders; they have become active actors in the

production, transfer and intercultural communication processes of knowledge on a global

scale. Especially with the rapid development of digital technologies, the speed of

information circulation has increased, and it has become inevitable for academic

institutions to interact on a global level (de Wit, 2020: 2).

In this comprehensive transformation process, the evolving environmental conditions

confronting higher education institutions face, increasing cultural diversity, competitive

pressures driven by internationalization, and constantly renewed social expectations

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Multicultural Perspectives and Global Leadership in Higher Education

Pusat Pilten, Gülhiz Pilten

have inevitably necessitated the redefinition of the concept of leadership. This

transformation in the leadership paradigms is not limited to the fulfillment of

administrative functions alone; it also entails a strategic role in terms of the capacity of

institutions to develop vision, manage change, harmonize different cultural values, and

build sustainable academic communities in multicultural environments (Middlehurst,

2008: 87). The development of pluralistic leadership approaches increases the resilience

of educational institutions against crises and enables them to produce innovative

solutions (Leask, 2015: 23). In this context, reconsidering the concept of leadership in

higher education on the basis of cultural diversity has become an critical imperative for

all institutions that want to adapt to the requirements of the age.

In the last twenty years, the globalization of higher education has led to a significant

increase in international student mobility. According to UNESCO data, the number of

international students, which was approximately 2 million worldwide in 2000, has

exceeded 6 million by 2020 (UNESCO, 2021: 5). In the case of Turkey, the number of

international students, which was approximately 25,000 in 2010, has increased tenfold

over twelve years, exceeding 300,000 by 2023 (YÖK, 2023: 3), which is a concrete

indicator of the dimensions of cultural diversity in higher education. This increase forces

higher education institutions to develop new strategies such as cultural adaptation,

management of language diversity, and creation of multicultural learning environments.

The prediction that internationalization will continue at this pace increases the importance

of flexibility and inclusiveness in the structuring processes of higher education

institutions; and requires qualities such as cultural sensitivity, inclusiveness and

innovation to come to the fore in leadership approaches.

The researchers’ long-term academic experience in a multicultural international

university environment has been an important contribution in the structuring of this

study. In particular, one of the researchers had a five-year senior management position

at Khodja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University in Kazakhstan, where

he worked directly with academic and administrative staff from different cultural

backgrounds, providing a field-based perspective on multicultural management

processes. This unique experience adds contextual depth and originality to the study’s

analysis of the global education ecosystem and leadership structures in higher education.

Such field-based experiences enable a strong bridge between theoretical knowledge and

practical application.

In order to properly understand the transformation created by globalization in higher

education institutions and its impact on leadership processes, first of all, the structure of

the global education ecosystem into which these institutions are integrated must be

understood fully, accurately and in all its dimensions. Without examining this system in

a holistic manner, it is not possible to properly structure other structural factors in higher

education. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt a multi-layered analysis approach that

encompasses psychological, sociological, pedagogical and administrative dimensions

(Altbach & Knight, 2007: 293). The complex nature of the global education ecosystem

has reached a dimension that affects policy makers, administrators and academics not

only locally but also at a global level.

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Global Education Ecosystem: The Role of Cultural Diversity and

Globalization

In this section, the effects of globalization and cultural diversity on higher education

institutions will be discussed within the framework of the concept of "Global Education

Ecosystem". First, the definition of the global education ecosystem will be provided and

the dynamics of this structure based on multicultural interactions will be explained. Then,

the balance of interaction between global values and local cultural dynamics will be

examined and the importance of this process in terms of the sustainability of educational

institutions will be emphasized. Finally, the effect of cultural diversity on learning

processes will be evaluated; the opportunities and challenges created in the context of

critical thinking, cognitive flexibility and intercultural interaction will be discussed. Thus,

the ground will be prepared for a comprehensive analysis of the multidimensional

structure created by globalization in higher education environments.

Definition and Dynamics of the Global Education Ecosystem

The global education ecosystem refers to a multidimensional structure where different

cultural values meet, interact and contribute to new knowledge production processes

through higher education institutions. This ecosystem is not only an academic mobility

network that transcends geographical boundaries; it is also a dynamic interaction area

that allows for the mutual transfer of knowledge, values and cultural codes (Altbach &

Knight, 2007: 290). Within the global education ecosystem, higher education institutions

have to adapt to global knowledge standards and develop original academic structures

while preserving their local identities. However, this process also brings with it risks such

as the erosion of local cultural differences under the influence global norms from time to

time. For this reason, it is emphasized that the multicultural structure offered by the

global education ecosystem should be managed with a perspective that enriches and

protects local cultures (de Wit, 2020: 2).

In light of this information, in other words, the global education ecosystem can be defined

as an ideal environment where students, faculty members, management and operational

systems are structured within a coherent framework that encourages cultural diversity,

supports individual development and prioritizes academic freedom. In an ideal global

education ecosystem, students have the opportunity to think critically, develop empathy,

and gain a multi-dimensional perspective by interacting with individuals from different

cultures. Faculty members are positioned not only as transmitters of knowledge but also

as leaders who create inclusive learning environments that encourage intercultural

understanding. Management structures develop policies that make cultural diversity an

institutional value and ensure that all individuals feel safe, valued and belong.

Operational processes are shaped on the principles of transparency, justice, equal

participation and cultural sensitivity. When evaluated in terms of psychological needs, an

ideal global education ecosystem offers an environment that strengthens individuals'

sense of belonging, supports academic and personal development, allows them to

preserve their cultural identities and where differences are perceived as enrichment

rather than threat. Such a structure creates a sustainable educational atmosphere by

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supporting not only academic success but also the psychological well-being of individuals

(Maslow, 1943; Anderson, 2006).

Global Interaction and Local Dynamics

The global education ecosystem offers a multidimensional interaction area where higher

education institutions are faced with the necessity of preserving and developing local

cultural dynamics while embracing global values. Globalization has facilitated access to

information, increased multicultural academic collaborations and encouraged

international academic mobility. However, this process not only carries the risk of eroding

local cultural specificities in the face of universal standards, but also in some cases, local

actors may show excessive resistance to global values and tend to withdraw and reject

universal principles (Marginson, 2010: 23). This two-way tension necessitates the

development of a balanced strategy for higher education institutions. Educational

institutions must develop flexible policies that will protect and strengthen local identities,

languages and cultural traditions while embracing the global flow of information and

values. The sustainability of local values is of critical importance not only in terms of the

protection of cultural heritage but also in terms of the identity development, sense of

belonging and psychological well-being of individuals (Appadurai, 1996: 44). Therefore,

a successful global education ecosystem should be based on a balanced structure that

can reconcile global standards with local dynamics and integrate both global diversity

and local originality. This approach is based on an interaction model that feeds not on

conflict but on mutual enrichment.

Impact of Diversity on Learning

Cultural diversity is a critical factor that directly affects the quality of learning processes

in higher education. The inclusion of individuals from different cultural backgrounds

within the same learning environment greatly contributes to the development of students'

critical thinking, cognitive flexibility, and intercultural empathy skills. (Banks, 2006: 18).

Diversity acts as a protective barrier against homogeneous perspectives and strengthens

students' multidimensional problem-solving abilities. However, effective management of

this multicultural structure is of great importance. Seeing cultural differences only as a

superficial element of diversity can prevent the formation of in-depth understanding and

pave the way for intra-group conflicts (Deardorff, 2006: 247). It is not enough to accept

cultural diversity in educational processes; it should be understood, valued, and actively

integrated into learning processes. Effective diversity management encourages students

to question cultural prejudices, be open to different perspectives, and communicate

effectively in multicultural environments. Such a learning environment supports a holistic

development process that strengthens not only academic success but also the social

adaptation skills and cultural intelligence of individuals.

As a result, the concept of the global education ecosystem discussed in this section has

revealed that it offers a multidimensional interaction area in the context of the effects of

cultural diversity in higher education. The preservation of the delicate balance between

global and local dynamics is of critical importance in terms of the sustainability of

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educational institutions and the preservation of cultural richness. In addition, the positive

contribution of cultural diversity to learning processes stands out as a key determinant

in the cognitive and social development of individuals. This conceptual framework

prepares the ground for the discussion of how leadership approaches in higher education

are shaped in the context of multicultural environments in the following sections of the

study.

Multicultural Interaction and Management in Higher Education

This section will discuss strategies that will ensure multicultural interaction in higher

education institutions and the effective management of this structure. Considering the

multicultural nature of the global education ecosystem, elements such as communication

skills that leaders should have, integration of policies that support diversity into the

institutional structure, and management of cultural conflicts are of critical importance.

First, leadership and communication skills that support multicultural interaction will be

examined; then, how diversity can be effectively integrated into the institutional structure

will be discussed. Finally, strategies for resolving cultural conflicts and peaceful

adaptation processes of different cultures will be evaluated. Thus, a comprehensive

framework will be presented on how effective leadership approaches can be developed

in the management of multicultural environments.

Multicultural Communication Skills and Leadership:

Effective leadership in multicultural environments is based not only on managerial skills

but also on deep intercultural communication competence. Being able to communicate

effectively with individuals from different cultural backgrounds requires leaders to

develop empathy, sensitivity and active listening skills (Deardorff, 2006: 247). Leading

within cultural diversity does not only require tolerating differences; it also requires

developing an understanding that can transform these differences into the intellectual

and social richness of the institution. Effective leaders encourage open-ended dialogues

in intercultural communication, question prejudices and evaluate cultural differences as

learning opportunities (Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009: 10). In this context, communication

should not only include the transfer of information but also the correct interpretation of

cultural meanings and values. The understanding of multicultural leadership necessitates

an approach that honors the cultural identities of individuals and manages differences

with an inclusive strategy. Such a leadership approach enables the development of a

management model that supports multicultural interaction and makes diversity one of

the basic elements of institutional success.

While effective leadership and intercultural communication skills provide a critical

foundation for supporting multicultural interaction, the sustainability of this structure is

only possible through the development of diversity policies and their effective integration

into the institutional structure. In this context, the process of designing and implementing

strategies that promote diversity at the institutional level is of great importance.

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Diversity Policies and Inclusion Strategies:

Sustaining multicultural interaction is not only limited to developing empathy and

communication skills at the individual level; it also necessitates the design and

implementation of comprehensive diversity policies at the institutional level. The success

of diversity policies is possible by defining cultural richness as an institutional value and

integrating these values into daily operations through concrete practices (Hurtado et al.,

1998: 186). These policies should not only include different cultural groups in the

institution; they should also aim to create an inclusive learning, teaching and

management environment. Effective diversity strategies should include concrete steps

such as open participation mechanisms, fair representation, intercultural training

programs, and practices that support language diversity (Williams, 2020: 17). In

addition, sharing successful examples and making practical applications visible in the

process of integrating these policies into the institutional culture both increases

motivation within the institution and reduces resistance points towards diversity (Smith,

2015: 44). In this context, higher education institutions need to build structures that not

only accommodate diversity but also actively sustain and develop diversity.

However, significant risks arise when diversity policies remain at a formal level and are

not deeply integrated into the institutional culture. If practitioners and managers

primarily support their own cultural groups instead of adhering to the principle of

neutrality in situations of cultural conflict, this may lead to a deterioration in the

perception of institutional justice and a feeling of exclusion for other cultural groups (Sue,

Capodilupo, & Holder, 2008: 275). In such an atmosphere, cultural differences cease to

be a source of enrichment and become a source of conflict and alienation. Discriminatory

attitudes, especially those fed by cultural prejudices, can have permanent psychological

effects on both students and academic and administrative staff (Goodman, 2009: 9). In

order to prevent such negativities, it is of great importance that diversity policies are no

longer merely principles included in documents but become an organic part of the daily

life of the institution. Otherwise, institutions may become structures that deepen cultural

separation and institutional alienation instead of developing cultural diversity.

Although the correct implementation of diversity policies promotes cultural harmony,

conflicts inevitably arise from time to time in multicultural environments. Therefore, the

development of effective cultural conflict management and harmony strategies is of vital

importance for the sustainability of a peaceful coexistence in multicultural higher

education institutions.

Cultural Conflict Management and Harmonization Strategies:

The management of cultural conflicts in multicultural higher education environments is a

critical process for creating an effective and sustainable peaceful institutional

environment. Various theoretical strategies for resolving cultural conflicts have been

defined in the literature, and clearly defining their practical steps increases institutional

success.

First, the integrative conflict management approach focuses on discovering the common

interests of different parties and producing solutions that will benefit both parties

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(Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007: 495). The application steps of this approach are as

follows: (1) The parties are enabled to clearly express their basic needs and expectations,

(2) The value differences underlying the conflict are determined, (3) Win-win solutions

are created by working together on options that will provide mutual benefit.

Secondly, conflict management strategies based on cultural intelligence aim to develop

individuals’ skills in understanding, interpreting and behaving sensitively towards

different cultural norms (Ang et al., 2007: 337). The implementation steps of this

approach are as follows: (1) Individuals involved in the conflict are encouraged to define

their own cultural prejudices, (2) Conscious trainings and workshops are organized to

understand different cultural communication styles, (3) Decision-making processes

sensitive to cultural differences are developed.

Thirdly, collaborative dialogue and mediation models aim to build trust between the

parties through direct communication and empathic listening (Ting-Toomey, 1999: 45).

The implementation steps of this approach are as follows: (1) Face-to-face open dialogue

sessions are held between the parties, (2) The feelings, perceptions and expectations of

the parties are listened to with an empathic approach, (3) While the parties are

encouraged to produce solutions together, a mediator guides the process with cultural

sensitivity.

Finally, adaptation and flexibility strategies focus on individuals developing flexibility to

adapt to different cultural environments (Gudykunst, 2004: 67). The implementation

steps of this approach are as follows: (1) Conscious experience programs are created for

individuals to develop tolerance for cultural variability, (2) Individuals are trained in

adaptive communication techniques (e.g., language use that is sensitive to cultural

references) (3) Flexibility and adaptation capacity are regularly assessed and

strengthened at the individual and institutional level.

The holistic and systematic implementation of these strategies not only enables conflicts

to be resolved, but also enables multicultural environments to become areas of creative

cooperation and cultural richness.

Global Leadership Models and Higher Education

In this section, global leadership models used in the effective management of

multicultural environments in higher education institutions and the development of these

models will be examined. It will be discussed how leadership approaches that can be

effective in different cultural contexts support inclusiveness in higher education

institutions and how they establish a balance between global and local values. In addition,

the importance of core competencies such as empathy, cultural sensitivity and flexibility

in the development of multicultural leadership skills will be emphasized. Finally, it will be

evaluated how cultural diversity plays a catalytic role in the development of innovative

and creative leadership strategies. Thus, the necessary theoretical and practical

framework for effective leadership practices in multicultural higher education

environments will be established.

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Multicultural Leadership Models:

In the process of developing effective leadership practices in multicultural higher

education environments it is important to utilize theoretical models that take into account

the impact of cultural differences on leadership styles. In the literature, several models

that systematically classify leadership differences across cultures.

Initally, the GLOBE Leadership Project (House et al., 2004) classified leadership

prototypes according to cultural context in nine dimensions. In this study, leadership

behaviors that are universally perceived as positive, such as charismatic/visionary

leadership, participative leadership, and human-oriented leadership, were determined

among the leadership characteristics. However, it was also revealed that authoritarian or

individualistic leadership styles are perceived more positively in some cultures and

negatively in others. According to the GLOBE model, leadership must be sensitive to the

value systems of the cultural context in order to be effective.

Additionally, Mendenhall et al. (2012) defined the core competencies required for global

leadership and diversified leadership models: Global Mindset and Boundary-Spanning

Leadership. Global Mindset refers to the leader's capacity to understand and evaluate

different cultural perspectives beyond their own culture, Boundary-Spanning Leadership

means that the ability to manage interactions across different cultural, organizational or

national boundaries.

Similarly, Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Model (2001) explained how leadership styles.

Leadership styles change based on cultural dimensions like individualism-collectivism,

power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. For example, in cultures with low power

distance, leadership has a more horizontal and participatory structure, while in cultures

with high power distance, an authoritarian and directive attitude is expected from

leaders.

These theoretical frameworks show that in multicultural leadership practices, not only

general leadership skills but also strategies specific to the cultural context should be

developed. Multicultural leadership in higher education institutions requires a flexible

approach that can balance universal leadership principles with local cultural sensitivities.

Development of Multicultural Leadership Skills:

Effective leadership in multicultural higher education environments requires leaders to

have certain intercultural competencies. In the literature, the basic characteristics

required for multicultural leadership and strategies for developing these characteristics

have been systematically defined.

Intercultural Empathy: The ability to understand the perspectives of individuals from

different cultural backgrounds and to communicate in a way that is sensitive to these

differences (Ang & Van Dyne, 2015: 29). Development strategies are as follows: (1)

Participation in intercultural simulation and role-playing activities, (2) Cultural story

listening and telling studies to develop empathy, (3) Structured in-depth interviews with

individuals from different cultural groups.

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Cultural Intelligence (CQ): A set of cognitive, motivational and behavioral abilities that

enable being effective in different cultures (Ang & Van Dyne, 2015: 34). Development

strategies are as follows: (1) Cultural knowledge programs and cultural awareness

training, (2) Taking an active role in intercultural tasks (e.g. international team

leadership), (3) Receiving feedback using assessment tools that measure cultural

adaptation skills.

Flexibility and Adaptability: The capacity to be sensitive to different cultural norms and

expectations and to show behavioral flexibility according to these differences (Rockstuhl

et al., 2011: 829). Development strategies are as follows: (1) Flexibility-based problem-

solving studies on intercultural crisis scenarios, (2) Short-term relocation programs to

gain experience in different cultural environments, (3) Keeping individual diary or writing

reflection reports on adaptation processes.

Global Mindset: The ability to make intellectual and emotional transitions between

different cultures, markets and organizational systems (Mendenhall et al., 2012: 43).

Development strategies are as follows: (1) Regularly following the global agenda and

international developments, (2) Developing a multicultural perspective by taking part in

international consortiums, (3) Undertaking leadership in intercultural collaborations and

exchange projects.

Effective Intercultural Communication Skills: The ability to communicate according to

different cultural norms and correctly interpret cultural implications and differences

(House et al., 2004: 65). Development strategies are as follows: (1) Participation in

advanced intercultural communication training, (2) Learning culturally sensitive listening

and questioning techniques, (3) Participation in the solution of case studies emphasizing

cultural empathy in communication.

The systematic development of these characteristics directly contributes to the

establishment of effective, inclusive and sustainable leadership practices in multicultural

higher education environments.

Innovation and Creativity in Multicultural Leadership:

Multicultural leadership structures have the potential to not only manage diversity but

also use this diversity as a resource for innovation and creativity. There is strong evidence

in the literature that cultural diversity strengthens innovative thinking and creative

problem-solving skills (Stahl et al., 2010: 692). The fact that individuals from different

cultural backgrounds offer different perspectives paves the way for questioning existing

patterns and developing alternative solutions. This requires leaders to view cultural

diversity not only as a challenge to be managed but also as a strategic advantage.

According to Hofstede (2001: 353), individuals from cultures with high individualism tend

to produce more original ideas, while individuals from collectivist cultures tend to develop

group-based innovative solutions. Therefore, it is critical for multicultural leaders to

create environments that encourage both individual and collective creativity.

Effective leadership practices to encourage innovation in multicultural environments

include: (1) Open Communication and Psychological Trust: Creating an environment

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where different ideas can be expressed without punishment (Edmondson, 1999). (2)

Valuing Differences: Seeing cultural differences not as deficiencies but as sources of

innovative thinking and integrating this perspective into the institutional culture (Gupta

& Govindarajan, 2002: 487). (3) Building Cross-Cultural Teams: Creating teams where

individuals from different cultural backgrounds can work together and produce creative

synergy (Stahl et al., 2010: 693).

Multicultural leadership fosters the development of innovative strategies nourished by

this diversity, enabling higher education institutions to produce more creative and

compatible solutions to changing global needs.

As a result, in this section, how leadership practices should be structured in multicultural

higher education environments is discussed within the framework of theoretical models

and a competency-based approach. Under the title of Multicultural Leadership Models,

leadership typologies that are sensitive to cultural context are defined; In the section of

Development of Multicultural Leadership Skills, the basic characteristics that multicultural

leaders should have and the strategies for developing these characteristics are

systematically presented. Finally, under the title of Innovation and Creativity in

Multicultural Leadership, how cultural diversity contributes to the development of

innovative and creative solutions through leadership is discussed. This conceptual

framework will form the basis for a more in-depth analysis of the transformation

processes of leadership in higher education in the continuation of the study.

Global Governance and the Future of Sustainable Multicultural

Leadership

This section explores the current status of sustainable leadership practices within

multicultural structures in higher education institutions and the dynamics of

transformation for the future. First of all, it will discuss how sustainable leadership models

are built through the strategic integration of cultural diversity and how these models

contribute to the long-term success of higher education institutions. Then, it will analyze

how new technological developments in digitalization, artificial intelligence and

intercultural communication transform leadership structures. In this context, it will be

evaluated how flexible and inclusive leadership models shaped by cultural sensitivity will

form the basis of future multicultural higher education institutions. Thus, the evolution

of sustainable multicultural leadership structures will be examined with a holistic

approach from a perspective extending from the present to the future.

Sustainable Leadership and Multicultural Integration

Sustainable leadership involves not only maintaining current operational success but also

using cultural diversity as a strategic advantage for the future. Hargreaves and Fink

(2006: 30) define sustainable leadership as an approach based on the preservation of

values, long-term thinking and cultural sensitivity. In this context, multicultural

integration has become an integral component of sustainable leadership.

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The basic steps that leaders should follow for successful cultural integration are as

follows: (1) The institution clearly defines cultural diversity in official strategic

documents, (2) Establishing decision-making mechanisms where different cultural groups

are represented, (3) Developing an institutional culture where cultural differences are

accepted as values (Stensaker & Harvey, 2010: 104).

These steps ensure not only the preservation of diversity but also the transformation of

cultural values into fundamental elements of sustainable development.

Cultural Diversity and Sustainable Development Goals

Cultural diversity plays a strategic role in achieving the sustainable development goals

(SDGs). According to the OECD (2019: 14) report, universities’ support for cultural

diversity strengthens their social responsibility and promotes inclusive development

through education. In this context, universities should: (1) Develop social responsibility

projects that support cultural diversity, (2) Encourage intercultural collaborations to

achieve sustainable development goals, (3) Integrate cultural diversity and sustainability

themes in their educational programs. These strategies reveal that cultural diversity is

not only an ethical value but also an indispensable resource for sustainable development.

Future Directions: Digitalization, Multicultural Communication, and Inclusive

Leadership

Future higher education leadership is taking shape in parallel with developments in the

fields of digitalization, artificial intelligence and intercultural communication.

Digitalization accelerates data-based decision-making processes; and artificial

intelligence allows leaders to analyze different cultural needs more sensitively

(Makridakis, 2017: 24).

Altbach and Knight (2007: 301) emphasize that the multicultural perspective has a

transformative effect on leadership structures; they predict that in the future, leadership

structures will be redesigned in a more flexible, inclusive and culturally diverse manner.

Bush and Middlewood (2005: 98) state that future leadership models should be based on

the principles of flexibility and participation in order to adapt to changing cultural,

technological and social dynamics.

Accordingly, in future leadership practices, the following are primarily envisaged: (1) Use

of artificial intelligence-supported cultural analysis and decision support systems, (2)

Effective management of multicultural teams through digital platforms, (3) Creation of

flexible and inclusive management structures that encourage cultural diversity.

This transformation will ensure that cultural diversity becomes not just a phenomenon to

be managed, but a strategic competitive advantage and source of sustainable

development in higher education.

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Conclusion

The rapidly changing dynamics of globalization have profoundly transformed higher

education institutions; turning these institutions into multicultural ecosystems where

different cultural values intersect and interact. This study reveals that the success and

sustainability of higher education institutions in the global arena play a crucial role on

their capacity to strategically integrate cultural diversity and adapt their leadership

structures accordingly.

The examination of the global education ecosystem has emphasized the critical

importance of establishing a delicate balance between global interaction and local cultural

dynamics. It has been shown that effective management of cultural diversity strengthens

learning processes, supports cognitive flexibility and creates inclusive social

environments. In this context, multicultural leadership skills such as intercultural

empathy, cultural intelligence, flexibility and global perspective have emerged as core

competencies for leadership in complex multicultural environments.

The study also emphasized that sustainable leadership approaches should not only

protect and respect cultural diversity, but also use this diversity as a strategic resource

for institutional innovation and development. Transformative forces such as digitalization

and artificial intelligence play an important role in future leadership models as critical

tools that support multicultural decision-making and communication processes. This

study offers a comprehensive framework that integrates the concepts of multiculturalism,

leadership development, and sustainability in the context of higher education. The results

indicate that that the construction of culturally sensitive, flexible, and inclusive leadership

structures is essential for higher education institutions to maintain their resilience and

global competitiveness. Future research should examine that future research examine

the practical applications of these models in different regional and institutional contexts

in more detail in a world where technological change and cultural diversity are rapidly

increasing.

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Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

MANAGEMENT STYLES AND ORGANIZATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

LEVEL OF HIGHER EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS

DILEK YÖRÜK

dilekyoruk@hacettepe.edu.tr

Dilek Yörük completed her undergraduate studies in the Department of Philosophy at Hacettepe

University and received her master’s degree from the Department of Guidance and Psychological

Counseling at Gazi University. She is currently continuing her doctoral studies in Educational

Administration at Hacettepe University (Turkey). In her professional career, she has held

positions in guidance counseling, administration, and institutional management in various

educational institutions. Her academic work focuses on educational administration, leadership

processes, fear of success, and student achievement.

Abstract

With the influence of globalization, the responsibilities of administrators are increasing day by

day. Akademic and administrative managers in higher education institutions guide students

academically, socially, and psychologically, and the quality of this guidance directly affects

the organizational intelligence of institutions, which in turn influences the quality of services

provided and stakeholder satisfaction. However, no study has been found that examines the

relationship between higher education administrators’ leadership styles and organizational

intelligence within a theoretical framework. No studies have been found that directly examine

the relationship between the management styles of higher education administrators and

organizational intelligence, although there are studies that are indirectly related. The purpose

of this study is to explain the concepts of management styles of higher education

administrators and organizational intelligence of instituons, and to discuss their theoretical

foundations. It has been prepared using a qualitative literatüre review method. Case studies

available in TR Index and Turcademy.com were examined, and the effects of management

styless and organizational intelligence in higher education were analyzed. The data obtained

were processed primarily using content analysis. The findings were examined carefully, in

detail, and systematically, then classified and interpreted. This research contributes to

understanding of the role of higher education administrators management styles in

organizational intelligence.

Keywords

Organizational intelligence, Management, Management Style, Administrator.

Resumo

Com o avanço da globalização, as responsabilidades atribuídas aos administradores das

Instituições de Ensino Superior têm-se intensificado progressivamente. Os gestores

académicos e administrativos assumem um papel fundamental na orientação dos estudantes,

não apenas a nível académico, mas também nos domínios social e psicológico. A qualidade

dessa orientação tem um impacto direto na inteligência organizacional das instituições, a qual,

por sua vez, influencia significativamente a qualidade dos serviços prestados e o grau de

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satisfação das partes interessadas. Apesar da relevância do tema, não se identificaram

estudos que abordem, de forma direta e enquadrada teoricamente, a relação entre os estilos

de liderança dos administradores do ensino superior e a inteligência organizacional. Embora

existam investigações com ligações indiretas, verifica-se uma lacuna na literatura

relativamente à exploração sistemática desta relação. O presente estudo tem como objetivo

principal clarificar os conceitos de estilos de gestão dos administradores do ensino superior e

de inteligência organizacional, bem como discutir os respetivos fundamentos teóricos. A

investigação foi desenvolvida com base numa metodologia de revisão qualitativa da literatura.

Para tal, foram analisados estudos de caso disponíveis em bases de dados como o TR Index

e o Turcademy.com, com o intuito de examinar os efeitos dos estilos de gestão e da

inteligência organizacional no contexto do ensino superior. Os dados recolhidos foram tratados

maioritariamente através de análise de conteúdo. Os resultados foram analisados de forma

minuciosa, sistemática e detalhada, sendo posteriormente organizados e interpretados com

base em categorias temáticas relevantes. Esta investigação pretende contribuir para um

melhor entendimento do papel dos estilos de gestão adotados pelos administradores no

desenvolvimento da inteligência organizacional nas instituições de ensino superior,

oferecendo, assim, um referencial teórico para estudos futuros nesta área.

Palavras-chave

Inteligência Organizacional, Gestão, Estilo de gestão, Administrador.

How to cite this article

Yörük, Dilek (2025). Management Styles and Organizational Intelligence Level of Higher Education

Administrators. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier -

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June

2025, pp. 36-51. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.3.

Article submitted on 24

march 2025 and accepted for publication on 4 may 2025.

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Management Styles and Organizational Intelligence Level of Higher Education Administrators

Dilek Yörük

MANAGEMENT STYLES AND ORGANIZATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

LEVEL OF HIGHER EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS

DILEK YÖRÜK

1. Introduction

The fundamental principles and functions of management are valid for all organizations.

While public institutions, voluntary organizations, and private sector organizations differ

in their implementation styles (Erdoğan,1994), the success and effectiveness of

organizations depend not on their type but on the efficiency and capability of their

management. Just as water and air are vital for living organisms, successful and effective

management is the lifeline of organizations. This is closely related to the organization’s

cultural values, organizational intelligence, the harmony of its management style, and

the functions of its administrators.

Higher education represents the final and most critical level of formal education in

preparing future generations. It plays a key role in a country’s development across

economic, industrial, cultural, technological, political, and many other domains (Ünsal,

2016). This diversity reflects not only on the execution of academic duties but also on

the differentiation of expertise between departments, making the bureaucratic structure

more complex. Although quantitative criteria such as punctual attendance, timely

fulfilment of responsibilities, and positive student evaluations are commonly used to

assess academic performance, these often result in a mechanical perception of the

academician. Nevertheless, it is essential to prioritize and preserve educational quality.

In the absence of comprehensive tools to assess academic quality, more easily

measurable elements such as class attendance, timely grade entry, student evaluations,

and job continuity become the primary focus. A shared governance model based on

checks and balances and coordinated collaboration between academic and administrative

units fosters neutrality. Howoever, not all societies or higher education institutions can

adapt to the changes brought by globalization. Some struggle to keep up with

contemporary developments. Moreover, the standardization movement has caused

higher education institutions to prioritize accreditation over individual institutional

identity. Therefore, management styles in higher education have become a crucial issue

requiring close attention (Celep & Tülübaş, 2015).

This study was prepared using a qualitative literature review method. Case studies

included in the existing literature in TR Dizin and Turcademy.com were examined, and

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management styles, management styles in higher education, and their effects on

organizational intelligence were analyzed. In processing the data obtained from these

sources, content analysis was commonly utilized. The data collected during this process

were examined carefully, thoroughly, and systematically, then classified and interpreted.

The data were obtained from academic articles, books, master's/doctoral theses, and

peer-reviewed journal publications. The selected studies were particularly those

conducted in higher education institutions, addressing the relationship between

management styles and organizational intelligence, covering basic management theories,

and published within the last 5–10 years. The aim of this article is to explore the concepts

of management, management styles, and organizational intelligence and to examine how

they are explained with the help of the classical management theories on which the

literature is based, particularly through the management process approach. In this

context, a qualitative literature review was conducted, first addressing the question of

“what is management, what is a management style?” and then examining the

relationship between organizational intelligence and management styles in higher

education. Understanding the theoretical foundations of management styles in higher

education will contribute to a better understanding of the organizational implications of

the subject.

When the national literature is examined, some of the case studies that investigate the

effects of management styles in higher education institutions on organizational

intelligence are as follows: Tekbulut (2017) investigated the relationship between

leadership styles, organizational citizenship behaviors, and academic performance, based

on the participation of 291 faculty members working during the 2015–2016 academic

year at Hacettepe University, Middle East Technical University (METU), and Gazi

University. The results of the study showed significant differences in faculty members’

views on the department chair’s leadership style according to the faculty and university

variables.

In Turkey, various institutions including the Ministry of Youth and Sports, the Ministry of

Development, the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK),

the Council of Higher Education (YÖK), and numerous non-governmental organizations

actively support youth-oriented projects and scientific research. These bodies provide

assistance to young individuals, initiatives targeting youth, and researchers through

scholarships and grant programs. A tangible example of such support is the International

Youth and Science Center project. In their (2018) study, Açıkalın, Erçetin, Potas, and

Güngör examined the perspectives of 1,958 young individuals aged 15 to 29 who

participated in the International Youth and Science Center in Ankara. The study aimed to

assess participants’ views on the planned scientific activities. The findings revealed that

participants reported high levels of satisfaction with the scientific events, the educators

involved, and the physical facilities and educational materials provided. Furthermore, the

participants perceived the educators as competent in their subject areas and

acknowledged that the scientific activities contributed positively to their career planning

and personal development.

In a study conducted by Altıntaş and Özata (2024) at Yozgat Bozok University, the effects

of transformational and transactional leadership styles on employee satisfaction were

analyzed. The findings revealed that organizational trust and organizational commitment

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played a partial mediating role in the effect of transformational and transactional

leadership on employee satisfaction among healthcare workers. Among education

workers, organizational trust and commitment partially mediated the effect of

transformational leadership on employee satisfaction, whereas in the case of

transactional leadership, these factors played a full mediating role. Organizational

communication was not found to significantly affect employee satisfaction; hence, no

mediating effect was observed.

Aktemur (2016) investigated the effects of administrators’ leadership styles on

employees’ emotional intelligence and perceptions of organizational culture. The study

was conducted with a total of 103 participants, including managerial staff and teachers

from a private educational institution in Istanbul. The analysis showed statistically

significant relationships between educational level and emotional intelligence, years of

service and charismatic leadership, empowering leadership and personal competence,

self-management, social awareness, and relationship management, transformational

leadership and organizational identity, norms, rituals, perceived values, and institutional

image, and similarly, charismatic leadership and empowering leadership with those same

variables related to organizational culture.

Göl (2018) analyzed the relationship between decision-making styles of higher education

administrators and organizational culture. The study was conducted during the 2016–

2017 academic year with 310 administrators working in public and foundation universities

in Turkey. According to the findings, a significant difference emerged only in terms of

seniority among demographic variables. However, when means were considered,

differences were observed for other demographic variables as well. Additionally, there

were varying levels and strengths of relationships between perceived organizational

culture types and preferred decision-making styles.

This study attempts to examine management styles and organizational intelligence in

higher education within a general framework, based on Henry Fayol’s Management

Process Approach from Classical Management Theories. This is because the management

process approach encompasses principles directly related to management styles.

Management styles in higher education institutions are highly influential in shaping

organizational intelligence. Factors such as transformational leadership, ethical

leadership, and emotional intelligence contribute to enhancing organizational

intelligence, enabling institutions to adapt more effectively and become more innovative

in response to environmental changes. The case studies mentioned above demonstrate

that leadership approaches have a direct impact on areas such as employee satisfaction,

organizational commitment, and academic performance. In this regard, although this

study focuses on examining the relationship between management styles and

organizational intelligence in higher education institutions through the management

process approach from Classical Management Theories, it is also supported by the

Contingency Theory, Transformational Leadership Theory, and Organizational Learning

Theory.

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2. The Concept of Management and Management Styles

The concept of management has existed as a discipline for centuries. Management is the

process of directing all resources in an organization primarily human resources toward

predetermined objectives and controling them around organizational goals (Bursalıoğlu,

2012). While what a manager should do is generally defined by procedures in the private

sector and by regulations in the public sector, how a manager should do it is often unclear

(Özgür, 2011). The fundemental question in management, therefore, is “what to do” and

“how to do it.” Studies on management styless are expected to guide policymakers and

educators. A management style effective in one society may hold little significance in

another. Therefore, it seems implausible to talk about a standart set of management

styles. Moiden (2002) argues that there is no consensus on the “most appropriate

management style.” Therefore, the expected outcome of the management process is to

apply the style most suitable for achieving the organization’s goals and objectives. When

confronted with conflict, a manager must determine and implement appropriate

resolution strategies. However, addressing conflict merely through organizational

strategies may prove insufficient. Managers must also understand how individuals

involved in the conflict perceive and approach it (Moberg, 2001: 48). Each manager acts

as a conflict resolver within their organization and develops a personel management

style. Effective managers are responsible for ensuring that their organizations operate

constructively and productively. From this understanding, three fundamental

management style have emerged: autocratic, democratic-participative, and laissez faire.

Autocratic Management Style: In this style, managers concentrate all power, authority,

and responsibility in themselves and grant no say to subordinates. The opinions of

subordinates are considered insignificant, and the primary concern is the fulfillment of

tasks. This style is typically adopted in situations requiring swift decision making or in

organizations with unmotivated and untrained personnel who must be mobilized quickly

through pressure or fear.

Democratic-Participative Management Style: This style involves managers encouraging

subordinates to contribute to decision but does so after gathering input from

subordinates. This style aims not only to achieve organizational goals but also to benefit

from the managerial capabilities of subordinates. It does not rely on a centralized

authority. The manager delegates tasks and responsibilities to subordinates, and

decisions are made collectively in meetings. In this style, the manager’s attitude is

particularly important.

Laissez-Faire Management Style: Also known as the “hands-off” style, managers provide

subordinates with a goal but allow them freedom in how to achieve it. According to Eren

(1993), this style requires minimal managerial authority, with the manager acting as a

supporter within the manager acting as a supporter within the bounds of the resources

provided, taking on a monitoring role. Organizational succes depends more on the

members than on the manager. To implement this style effectively, members must be

experts in their work and possess a strong sense of responsibility (Yılmaz, 2016).

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3. The Concept of Organization and Organizational Intelligence

The relationship between individual and collective learning is of great importance in

organizational theory. Although organizational learning occurs through individuals, it is a

mistake to consider it merely as the sum of individuals learning. Organizations do not

possess brains, but they do have cognitive systems and memory. İndividuals come and

go, leaders change , yet the memory of organization preserves certain behaviors,

cognitive maps, norms, and values over time. Organizations that fail to internalize the

philosophy of organizational learning lose their ability to renew themselves, shape the

future, and create differentiation compared to their competitors. A learning organization

is one that possesses the ability to generate acquire, and transfer knowledge and to

modify its behaviors in accordance with new knowledge and insights. In this context,

organization’s adaptation to its environment its ability to raise awareness and transform

its surroundings through Collective action and shared consciousness based on its goals

and capabilities. In organizations that aim for high performance, members must engage

in a Collective effort to refine, preserve, and transform both individual and organizational

knowledge essentially, to focus on knowledge management, a key component of

organizational intelligence. In this sense, organizational intelligence is defined as the

willingness, unity, and ability of organizational members to enhance performance, refine

Professional knowledge collectively, and communicate intelligently informed meanings

through organizational behavior. Organizational intelligence is the foundation and key to

the process of organizational learning (Yıldırım, 2006: 147). The importance of intelligent

behavior within the structure and operations of organizations is undeniable. The reflection

of this intelligence in organizational behavior is driven by internal dynamics (Neyişçi,

2018).

In the 2014-2015 academic year, a study was conducted with a total of 48 people in a

primary school in Ankara to determine the social network structure of organizational

intelligence and operational sub-dimensions and to determine how the social network

structure differs. In the data collection, the "Multidimensional Organizational Intelligence

Scale" was used to determine the organizational intelligence and operational sub-

dimensions of the primary school and the "Social Network" data collection form was used

to determine the characteristics of the network mechanism and the relationships of the

actors in the network mechanism. Social network analysis, descriptive statistics, t-test

and variance analysis were used in the analysis of the data. According to the research

results, teacher and administrator perceptions regarding the intelligence level of the

school were generally determined as very high and high (Neyişçi and Erçetin, 2020).

Additionally, Potas et al. (2017) found that teachers' perceptions of the organizational

intelligence levels of the schools they work in were high.

Various researchers have proposed different definitions of organizational intelligence.

Weber et.al. (1996, as cited in Erçetin, 2004) define it as on organization’s ability to

adapt to, shape, and transform its environment through Collective action and

consciousness in live with its goals and competencies. Simic (2005), on the other hand,

defines it as “an organization’s intellectual capacity to solve organizational problems.”

One influential framework in the literatüre is that of Terenzini (1993), who conceptualizes

organizational intelligence through three dimensions: 1) technical-analytical, 2) problem-

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solving, and 3) contextual. The technical-analytical dimension consists of factual

knowledge or information and analytical/methodological skills. Factual knowledge refers

to the operational principles and norms found in legal administrative texts about an

organization’s structure and functioning, as well as the resulting actions. Analytical and

methodological competencies pertain to the processing, assessment, and interpretation

of data related to organizational outcomes and help facilitate planning, monitoring, and

evaluation processes aligned with organizational goals. The problem-solving dimension

addresses various managerial issues and includes the effective operation of both formal

and informal organizational structures. The contextual dimension integrates the technical

analytical and problem-solving dimensions within the organization’s cultural elements

such as history, value systems, and norms. This dimension refers to the process of

forming organizational identity. In summary:

− Organizations, like individuals, possess intelligence.

− Organizational intelligence should be analyzed through a multifaceted lens, taking

into account interacting components.

− It is synergistic, involving the interaction and energy transfer from individual to

organization and vice versa.

− Emotional intelligence and competencies of individuals play a critical role in this

process.

To sustain the health and effectiveness of this living system (i.e., the organization), the

emotional intelligence and competencies of individuals who are its most critical elements

must be transformed into the collective emotional intelligence and competencies of the

organization. At the individual level, emotional intelligence encompasses self-awareness,

self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and interpersonal skills. On an institutional level,

these correspond to organizational self-awareness (culture), emotional management, a

shared and pursued vision, organizational self- assessment and environmental

sensitivity, and effective communication (Erçetin, 2000: 16).

In organizations are viewed as living, learning, adapting, evolving entities then managers

can be seen as interpreters of organizational intelligence. From this perspective,

organizations to make decisions regarding both routine activities and unexpected

situations in a dynamic global environment and their capacity to employ those capabilities

(Erçetin, 2004: 42).

Ultimately, organizational intelligence entails: Quickness in action and response,

adaptability to change, operational flexibility and ease, intuition and foresight, open-

mindedness, creativity and imagination, and the capacity for renewal.

In their work, Halal and Kull (1998) identify various variables and benefits of

organizational intelligence, including information Technologies and systems,

organizational structure, culture, ecological relationships, knowledge assets, strategic

processes, dynamic factors, and performance. According to their findings:

− Managers and organizational members can assess the proactive capabilities of the

entire organizational system.

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− The patterns of the organization’s relationships with its environment can be

understood.

− The organization’s strengths and weaknesses can be identified.

− Proposals that foster knowledge creation and creativity in sub systems and the

organization as a whole can be developed.

− Gains can be increased through dynamic factors such as leadership (Erçetin, 2004).

4. Classical Management Theory, the Process Approach, and the

Contingency Approach

Classical Management Theory, which continues to influence contemporary management

thought, includes Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory, F.W. Taylor’s Scientific Management

Theory, and Henri Fayol’s Administrative (Process) Management Approach. Rather than

describing what is, this theory focuses on what ought to be (Mahmood & Basharat, 2012:

512). According to this theory, structure is central to the functioning of organizations;

thus, classical theorists concentrated their attention on the design of formal

organizational structures. Within this framework, the theory is built upon four

foundational elements: division of labor, hierarchy, structure, and control (Turan & Şahin,

2016: 31).

To understand Fayol’s views more clearly, one must consider the era in which he lived.

The general characteristics of Classical Management Thinking and its proponents are as

follows:

− It emerged in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution.

− It emphasized increasing added value and enhancing performance.

− It was rule-oriented, normative, and imposed a rigid discipline on employees.

− Centralized and hierarchical management structures were dominant.

− Job secutiry for workers was considered important.

− Workers were often viewed as machines, ignoring emotional and psychological

dimensions.

− Personal issues of workers were assumed to have no effect on productivity.

− Organizations were seen as closed systems with no interaction with the environment.

− Productivity was believed to increase through specialization and division of labor

(Karaboğa & Zehir, 2020).

A significant portion of the theoretical foundation of Classical Management Theory is

based on Fayol’s Process Management Approach. Fayol’s work focused primarily on

management functions. In his 1916 publication Administration Industrielle et Generale

(General and Industrial Management), he introduced six managerial functions and

fourteen principles of management: Division of work, authority and responsibility,

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discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interests to

general interest, fair remuneration, centralization, scalar chain, order, equity, stability of

personnel, initiative, and esprit de corps.

Fayol believed the following about these principles (Fayol, 2005):

− Nothing in management is absolute or definitive.

− Management is a matter of measurement and comparison.

− Even under similar conditions, the same principle is rarely applied in the same way.

− Practice should consider changing and diverse circumstances.

− Principles must be flexible and adaptable to needs.

− Knowing how to apply them is essential this requires significant skill.

− Experience, intelligence, decisiveness, and comparative judgment are essential to

applying principles effectively.

− There is no limit to management principles.

− Every rule and method shown through experience to facilitate management functions

and strengthen the organization can be considered a management principle.

According to Fayol, organizations should have hierarchical structures, and management

authority should rest with top managers. Lower-level managers must regularly inform

upper management about work activities (Mahmood & Basharat, 2012).

Emerging in the 1960s, the Contingency Approach of Modern Management Theory posits

that every organization is unique in terms of its subsystems and environment. It proposes

that the management process should be internally referenced and context dependent

(Gültekin, 2004). In contingency thinking, the practice of management should align with

what the situation demands. Success lies in fit and flexibility; therefore, there is no

universally best management approach. Management style, leadership effectiveness, or

organizational structure varies by context. That is, organizations adapt to specific

environmental conditions and variables to be successful. This approach, while

highlighting the unique and dynamic nature of organizations, also offers clarity on how

they should be managed.

The concept. Of Transformational Leadership was first introduced by Burns in 1978 and

later developed by Bass in 1985. Gaining prominence in the 1990s, the theory of

transformational leadership describes visionary leaders who lead their organizations to

success, support the performance of their followers, and create new opportunities. It

emphasizes empowerment and motivation as tools to change institutional culture and

values. Transformational leaders are those who transfer strategic visions and strategies

to a Collective team spirit, find clear and feasible solutions quality. They inspire others to

follow suit. These leaders are charismatic, intellectually engaging, and foster high levels

of trust and identification among followers. Higher education institutions, which need to

adapt to rapidly changing technological, economic, social, and cultural trends, require

continuous transformation. Given the increasing importance of entrepreneurial

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universities, transformation leadership plays a vital role in enabling institutions to keep

pace with global change. Such leaders empower academic staff and enhance productivity.

In higher education, transformational leaders also serve as sources of inspiration for

students (Karadağ, 2024).

The theory of Organizational Learning includes various models and approaches. It posits

that organizations generate two types of knowledge necessary for operations: “process

knowledge” and “deep knowledge” (Anderson et al., 1994). Process knowledge involves

the Technologies, human capital, and task requirements that guide organizational

operations and define quality standards. Deep knowledge, on the other hand,

encompasses foundational disciplines such as systems theory, statistics, and psychology.

While process knowledge helps understand the production and distribution of goods and

services, deep knowledge facilitates the learning processes within the organization.

Utilizing both types of knowledge lead to continuous improvement in products, services,

and processes (Aydınlı, 2005). The concept of the “learning organization,” popularized in

the 1990s through Peter M. Senge’s book The Fifth Discipline (2007), refers to

organizations that facilitate the learning of their members and continuously transform

themselves. Just as individuals learn, so too do organizations. This learning process is

Collective and includes acquiring knowledge, gathering information, and changing

behavior. It promotes adaptation to the environment and supports innovation and

competitiveness.

When we evaluate the relationship between organizational intelligence and organizational

learning, we find that organizational intelligence enables leaders to make strategic and

creative decisions by using information quickly and effectively. Meanwhile, organizational

learning brings about behavioral change through the acquisition of knowledge. In turn,

organizational intelligence enhances the quality and pace of learning processes. Thus,

there is a mutually reinforcing relationship between organizational intelligence and

organizational learning like branches growing from the same rooted tree. In choosing a

management style in higher education, administrators must consider both organizational

learning as indispensable tools for achieving effective and solution-oriented outcomes.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

It is observed that contemporary universities have undergone a transformation,

influenced by global implementations of new public management, neoliberal policies, and

the concept of globalization, which began in the 1980s.In this context, efficiency and

accountability have become the primary focus in higher education institutions and among

their representatives. Management practices in the higher education sector have shifted

from collegial governance to a more institutional or commercial paradigm, functioning as

mechanisms for control, cost reduction, and the advancement of specific policy agendas.

This transformation has led to a decline in the influence of academics in goal-oriented

decision-making processes, with authority shifting from academia to hierarchical

structures.

In a critical perspective toward this shift, which evaluates universities through the lens

of business logic, Owen (2003: 43) advocates for a culture of evaluation in higher

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education institutions. He emphasizes the necessity of implementing evidence-based

practices by involving staff in decision making processes to promote continuous

organizational development. In this context, transformational leadership may servet he

success of organizations by aligning with these objectives, However, today’s university

academics, who are expected to be the main participants in university governance, often

find themselves burdened by excessive workloads and low salaries. Through increased

collegial participation, it may be possible to meet their legitimate need for a voice in

institutional matters. Therefore, effective managers should focus on systems of

organizational learning, organizational intelligence, and design processes. When these

conditions are met, the participation of all stakeholders and the empowerment of

personnel will be ensured leading to greater accountability. Consequently, academics will

be better equipped to fulfill their duties in a manner aligned with institutional

expectations.

Mintzberg (1994) does not view employees merely as passive implementers within

organizations but rather as effective strategists. He defines universities as Professional

organizations in which employees are loosely and often inadequately involved in

organizational processes. From this perspective, he criticizes top-down management

styles. Hence, we may contrast Fayol’s process approach with Mintzberg’s emphasis on

employee agency and suggest that practitioners consider complementary viewpoints

while applying Fayol’s principles in higher education setting.

Ramsden observes a shift in Australian universities from bureaucratic structures to

learning oriented frameworks. He argues that top-down administrative control is both

erroneous and problematic. In this context, comparing higher education management in

Turkey with that of other countries may serve as a valuable tool for evaluating and

benchmarking institutional performance.

In the 21st century, the international system has become more complex and

interdependent, with mutual relations becoming more diversified and intense. On the

other hand, Turkey has shown great success since the early 2000s by increasing

employment and income levels in terms of both economic and social development

performance. Turkey has become an upper-middle income country (Açıkalın, 2021). In

the field of education, university rankings affect the views and preferences of students,

academics, policy makers and other stakeholders. They often valuable insights into the

quality and reputation of universities worldwide. Academic quality which reflects the

effectiveness of teaching activities and educational programs encompasses both tangible

and intangible elements that affect student learning outcomes and experiences. Global

ranking systems, such as the Times Higher Education World University Ranking, evaluate

institutional effectiveness across a range of dimensions. These systems rely on

comprehensive datasets from approximately 1,800 universities worldwide (cited in Balcı,

2023). Therefore, it is recommended that higher education administrators in Turkey

closely monitor global ranking systems and use their indicators as tools to support

institutional dynamics, staff motivation, and student engagement.

Fayol argued that leaders who govern organizations based on his fourteen principles

would inevitably contribute to organizational effectiveness and efficiency. He believed

that without these principles, organizations would descend into chaos and operate in

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darkness. Nonetheless, his theory has been subject to criticism for various reasons,

including its overly formal structure, insufficient attention to employee dynamics, vague

and sometimes superficial approaches, and its failure to associate managerial principles

with justice or ethical responsibilities. Fayol also faced criticism for being overly

universalist, neglecting empirical validation, viewing organizations as closed systems,

and promoting a single management approach applicable under all circumstances.

Moreover, the assumption that management functions such as planning, organizing,

directing, coordinating, and controlling are naturally inherent to management is now

considered a fallacy. Rather than debating the current relevance of Fayol’s ideas, it may

be more productive to examine how his general management approach corresponds to

contemporary management theories. This approach would help us enhance our

knowledge of management and identify commonalities among diverse theoretical

perspectives (Karaboğa & Zehir, 2020).

Despite this criticism, Fayol has left an indelible mark on the history of management. His

theory has not faded over time and continues to offer valuable insights for contemporary

organizational leaders. Based on the theory and the process approach discussed in this

study, it is recommended that higher education administrators serve as role models to

their staff, prioritize organizational intelligence without reducing institutions to closed

systems, and move beyond uniform management styles by responding to contextual

goals and needs. Managers should place importance on the human dimension of

organizations. Furthermore, it is advised that higher education institutions train their

leaders in hierarchical, rule based, disciplinary, and authority related matters or

collaborate with managers who demonstrate such competencies. In this way, role model

leaders will positively influence their teams, enhance organizational intelligence, and

contribute to the development of effective and successful management styles.

By adhering to Fayol’s principles and utilizing management functions appropriately,

framework can be established in alignment with the Contingency Theory’s unique and

integrative understanding of organizations. Projects and educational initiatives (such as

courses and R&D studies) may also be used to support personnel development in this

area. A key limitation of this study is that it explores management styles and

organizational intelligence using only a limited number of theories. Future studies may

consider additional theoretical frameworks to examine how managers influence their

institutions through their management styles and organizational intelligence.

In summary; The management styles of higher education administrators and the concept

of organizational intelligence have been examined through the lens of the process

approach in classical management theory, as well as through the Contingency Theory

and Organizational Learning Theory. Today’s higher education institutions have evolved

far beyond classical bureaucratic structures. Various factors lie at the core of

organizational intelligence in universities. These institutions now seek to go beyond

national boundaries and secure a place on international platforms while preserving their

uniqueness. In the face of a global and competitive World order, universities must become

more flexible, adaptive and agile. The pursuit of institutional rankings, accreditations of

the need to align with an ever-changing information society to manage academic data,

scientific outputs, and institutional processes systematically, universities have developed

intelligence-based structures such as digital transformation initiatives and R&D centers.

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In the post COVID-19 era, digitalization has accelerated, and the experience of distance

education has underscored the importance of adaptability and flexibility. Although the

COVID-19 pandemic has had some positive impacts on students, it has also resulted in

various negative consequences. “The effects of the pandemic on students differ

significantly depending on the socio-economic status of their families. Low-income

families, particularly those engaged in daily-paid labor without a stable income, have

been more adversely affected and have experienced elevated stress levels compared to

others. Nevertheless, it can be posited that greater opportunities provided by parents

during this period may have led to different outcomes for gifted students. In this regard,

causal studies involving parents and children may be conducted to explore these

dynamics further.” (Erçetin et al., 2021: 18).

The challenges and successes faced by organizations during this process have

highlighted the critical role of management styles and decision-making capabilities in

education and training. Today, universities are no longer solely institutions of education

and research they are dynamic organizations contributing to knowledge production,

economic development, and social transformation. Tools such as graduate tracking

studies, evaluation mechanisms, strategic plans, information systems, and institutional

intelligence assessments such as those conducted by the Higher Education Quality

Council of Turkey (YÖKAK), indirectly measure the academic and strategic capacity of

universities. Throughout this transformative process, organizational memory,

management styles, learning structures, and organizational intelligence are of vital

importance in shaping the present and future of higher education institutions.

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

DIGITAL TOOLS IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION: A

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH

SEÇKIN ESEN

seckinesen@hacettepe.edu.tr

Seçkin Esen received his Ph.D. in Educational Sciences from Hacettepe University in 2023

(Turkey). His research interests focus on educational management, second language acquisition,

school health, and educational technologies. He has contributed to various academic projects and

publications in educational sciences. Currently, he is involved in developing innovative content

and mobile applications to enhance language learning for diverse learner profiles.

Abstract

The use of digital tools has recently gained prominence in the field of second language

teaching due to the promising potential of technology use in education, which innovates

teaching methods and enhances the effectiveness of learning. This systematic review focuses

on recent research on the impacts of digital tool usage in second language teaching in higher

education. The review covers findings from recently published studies and highlights

challenges and best practices related to the implementation of digital technologies. The

findings of the studies show that technologies such as blended learning, online learning

platforms, mobile learning applications, digital games, and virtual and augmented reality offer

opportunities for language acquisition. Moreover, artificial intelligence presents opportunities

and challenges for not only language teachers but also learners. The conclusion section of the

study covers the gap in existing research and recommendations for future research on the

use of digital tools, which will make second language education in higher education more

effective.

Keywords

Digital Tools, Second Language Learning, Higher Education, Technology-Enhanced Language

Learning, Systematic Review.

Resumo

Nos últimos anos, a utilização de ferramentas digitais tem vindo a assumir um papel de

destaque no domínio do ensino de línguas estrangeiras, impulsionada pelo potencial

transformador da tecnologia na educação. Este fenómeno tem promovido a inovação nos

métodos pedagógicos e contribuído para o aumento da eficácia dos processos de

aprendizagem. A presente revisão sistemática incide sobre investigações recentes que

analisam os impactos da integração de ferramentas digitais no ensino de línguas estrangeiras

no ensino superior. A análise contempla os resultados de estudos publicados nos últimos anos

e sublinha os principais desafios, bem como as boas práticas identificadas no que respeita à

implementação de tecnologias digitais no contexto educativo. Os dados analisados evidenciam

que tecnologias como o ensino híbrido (blended learning), plataformas de aprendizagem

online, aplicações móveis de apoio à aprendizagem, jogos digitais, e ambientes de realidade

virtual e aumentada proporcionam oportunidades significativas para a aquisição de

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Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

competências linguísticas. Paralelamente, a inteligência artificial revela-se uma ferramenta

promissora, embora também apresente desafios, não apenas para os docentes, mas

igualmente para os próprios estudantes. A secção final deste estudo identifica lacunas

relevantes na literatura existente e propõe direções para futuras investigações. As

recomendações formuladas visam contribuir para uma utilização mais eficaz e sustentada das

ferramentas digitais no ensino de línguas estrangeiras no ensino superior, promovendo,

assim, ambientes de aprendizagem mais inovadores e inclusivos.

Palavras-chave

Ferramentas Digitais, Aprendizagem de Segunda Língua, Ensino Superior, Aprendizagem de

Línguas Assistida por Tecnologia, Revisão Sistemática.

How to cite this article

Esen, Seçkin (2025). Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic

Review of Recent Research. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier -

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June

2025, pp. 52-63. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.4.

Article submitted on 11

April 2025 and accepted for publication on 8 may 2025.

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Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 52-63

Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

DIGITAL TOOLS IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN HIGHER

EDUCATION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH

SEÇKIN ESEN

1. Introduction

The role of communication in education is undeniable, especially in the field of second

language acquisition, as it promotes global interaction, cultural immersion, and a variety

of career opportunities. Today’s communication is mostly based on digital technologies

that not only alter the education environments but also transform pedagogical practices

and learning outcomes. Digital tools used in second language learning in higher education

consist of various innovative tools and methods. These new learning environments

include blended learning that combines online and face-to-face instruction and artificial

intelligence platforms that provide personalized learning experiences. The widespread

use of rapidly evolving technologies in education makes it necessary to review the recent

research, which may help researchers investigate and understand the existing systems,

identify trends, and find gaps in the field. This review aims to examine the studies on the

use of digital tools in second language education in higher education and to provide a

comprehensive perspective for researchers, educators, and policymakers.

2. Literature Review: Existing Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) has been a popular subject among

scholars; therefore, numerous studies have been conducted on the integration of digital

tools in language education. Several systematic reviews, such as blended learning in

higher education for second language acquisition, have examined specific approaches.

“A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language

Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024” analyzed studies

published between 2014 and 2023. The study indicates that various studies were

conducted on undergraduate English learners, and there were significant enhancements

in language acquisition and student engagement due to the integration of social,

cognitive, and teaching presence. Other reviews, covering studies from 2013 to 2024,

have focused on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching that is based on online

collaboration, emphasizing the potential of online environments to improve writing skills

through interactive learning and feedback. (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). The use of newly

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Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

developed technologies in English teaching at universities has also been systematically

reviewed, and it was revealed that the number of empirical studies on the latest tools

like chatbots and virtual reality is inadequate (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023). Research trends in

TELL in the period between 2020 and 2022 were analyzed, pointing to the prevalence of

quantitative studies in higher education (Albashiry & Khan, 2023). Furthermore,

technology-enhanced self-regulated language learning has been systematically reviewed

in the studies published between 2011 and 2020 (Yang et al., 2023).

Meta-analyses have been applied in order to determine the effectiveness of digital tools.

In one meta-analysis, 34 studies on technology-enhanced vocabulary learning were

investigated. It was found that technology had a moderately positive effect on vocabulary

learning, and incidental instruction is more effective than intentional instruction (Lin &

Yu, 2022). The effects of interactive technologies on language learning were investigated

in another meta-analysis, finding that they have a significant positive effect on language

skills, learning attitudes, and self-efficacy (Li & Peng, 2024). Digital game-based

language learning (DGBLL) has been examined through meta-analysis, indicating a small

to medium positive effect of digital games on second language development (Dixon et

al., 2022). In addition, the effect of TELL on ESL/EFL writing skills has also been examined

in some studies. Accordingly, it was found that technology has a clearly significant

positive effect on writing skills (Xie and Wang, 2023). A meta-analysis on augmented

reality (AR) in language learning examined studies from 2010 to 2023 and found that AR

has a significant positive effect on both language and emotional outcomes (Wu et al.,

2024). A meta-analysis was also conducted on blended language education, and as a

result of the study, it was concluded that this method can be as successful as traditional

face-to-face education (Baralt et al., 2021). Several of these studies (A Systematic

Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through

the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024; Bakhsh & Abid, 2023; Chen et al., 2025;

González-Calatayud et al., 2023; Huang & Li, 2024; Wu et al., 2024) clearly demonstrate

the methodological rigor employed in the field through the PRISMA guidelines for

conducting systematic reviews.

According to the findings of literature reviews and meta-analyses, there is a well-

established research area within TELL. However, due to the continuous development of

new digital tools and the dynamic nature of educational practices, systematic reviews are

needed to capture current trends and findings. There is a significant amount of research

examining English as a foreign language, particularly at the undergraduate level (A

Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language

Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024; Al-Rahmi et al., 2024).

However, due to the paucity of such research on other languages, more research is

needed in additional target languages and at various levels of higher education, including

postgraduate studies.

3. Digital Tools and Second Language Skills: Impact and Effectiveness

This section of the study examines the impact and effectiveness of specific categories of

digital tools in supporting second foreign language learning in higher education.

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Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 52-63

Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

3.1. Blended Learning

Blended learning is defined as a hybrid model in which learners participate in both

physical classroom environments and online platforms. Blended learning is a multifaceted

concept that includes various definitions, models, and frameworks, incorporating all

educational formats that combine online and face-to-face learning activities (Hrastinski,

2019). Another definition is that it is a "pedagogically balanced, adaptive combination"

of various learning methods, consisting of both formal and informal dimensions as well

as the integration of real and virtual educational experiences (Mintii, 2023).

Emphasizing the interaction of social, cognitive, and instructional presence, the

Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework has significantly improved language acquisition

skills such as speaking, listening, writing, and general proficiency, as well as

psychological outcomes such as student engagement, perception, confidence, and self-

efficacy (A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language

Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024). There have been many

significant cognitive improvements in behavioral outcomes, including academic

performance, in blended learning environments (A Systematic Review of Blended

Learning in Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through the Community of

Inquiry Framework, 2024). However, blended learning has its drawbacks, one of which

is related to increasing reliance on technology. This situation may create barriers for

students and educators. Technical difficulties such as poor internet connectivity, issues

with Learning Management Systems (LMS), and limited access to digital resources can

hinder the learning process. Students in areas with unreliable or inadequate internet

connectivity may face difficulties during blended learning, which can lead to frustration

(Suriaman et al., 2023). Furthermore, Romli et al. emphasize the essential necessity of

adequate technology infrastructure. If technology infrastructure is inadequate, technical

difficulties can prevent students from learning (Romli et al., 2023).

The idea of integrating online and face-to-face teaching is a valuable approach for second

language acquisition in higher education since it can help the educators and learners to

achieve positive outcomes by promoting social and cognitive presence. However,

technical issues need to be prevented in order to make this approach effective for both

students and educators.

3.2. Online Collaborative Learning

Online collaborative learning (OCL) is defined as a method of structured learning in which

people participate in group projects using web resources. It usually results in the creation

of shared products for evaluation. This approach is described as activities needing

combined intellectual efforts between students or between students and teachers

(Kawtar et al. 2024). This cooperative approach allows students, who might be

geographically apart, to work either asynchronously or synchronously. Therefore, it

strengthens the learners’ sense of community and shared goal.

Online collaborative settings have been applied in teaching ESL and EFL in higher

education. They focus on the digital platforms and the specific language skills targeted

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 52-63

Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

(Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). Systematic reviews clearly show that collaborative online

settings improve learners' language proficiency through interactive learning, feedback

techniques, and personalized learning opportunities (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). These

environments not only help students improve their writing skills but also their oral and

speaking skills because the nature of online collaboration allows for this (Al-Rahmi et al.,

2024). However, collaborative online settings have disadvantages that need to be

addressed. These drawbacks include distraction of the learners, issues with internet

connection, lack of sources, and technical skills of learners (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024).

This learning approach encourages interaction among students. It offers significant

opportunities, especially in the development of writing and speaking skills. In order for

this approach to be effective, it is of great importance to prevent technical problems. In

addition, sufficient support should be provided to both educators and students to ensure

active participation of students and to increase educational efficiency.

3.3. Mobile Learning (MALL)

Mobile Learning (MALL) allows users to access learning materials and activities

independently of time and space by incorporating mobile devices into education (Indriani,

2020). This approach also encourages participatory and independent learning.

Recently, mobile learning has been widely used in second language education in higher

education. The use of mobile applications has become one of the best practices in blended

learning environments for language acquisition because it offers flexible and accessible

tools for language acquisition (Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher

Education: Second Language Acquisition with a Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024).

Research findings indicate that mobile applications of foreign language education

generally focus on the development of vocabulary skills (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023). Besides,

meta-analytic data show that mobile-assisted vocabulary learning is more successful

than traditional computer-assisted learning approaches due to the instant learning and

adaptability provided by mobile devices (Li and Peng, 2024).

3.4. Digital Game-Based Language Learning (DGBLL)

Digital game-based learning (DGBL) can be defined as supporting and facilitating learning

processes using video and digital games. Prensky coined the term, and according to

Prensky, DGBL encompasses learning activities that include digital games, ranging from

educational simulations to role-playing games (RPGs) (Byun & Joung 2018).

DGBL's potential in second language education has been a popular subject among

researchers and educators. Meta-analyses have provided valuable insights into the

effects of digital games on language education (Dixon et al., 2022), while systematic

reviews have investigated how digital games could be utilized in teaching vocabulary

skills (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023). These meta-analyses suggest a small to medium positive

effect of DGBL on language learning outcomes (Dixon et al., 2022). Recent research has

proposed that games designed for only entertainment purposes can particularly be more

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 52-63

Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

effective for second language acquisition when compared with the games designed for

only educational purposes (Dixon et al., 2022). In addition to the result of the studies. It

is indicated that playing digital games might help learners' vocabulary acquisition and

change the perspective of language acquisition in a favorable way (Franco, 2024).

Digital game-based language learning proposes a promotive way for second language

acquisition based on the indications of studies that demonstrate beneficial effects on a

variety of language skills, such as vocabulary skills. The realization of how games with

an entertainment focus can be adapted to the process of second language learning

highlights the importance of motivation and engagement in the language learning

process. What is also inferable from the discoveries is the superiority of these elements

compared to unique instructional designs.

3.5. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)

Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) have recently started to be used in second

language education. These technologies support second language education with

immersive and personalized learning experiences. While virtual reality offers simulated

contexts that learners participate in authentic language use, augmented reality enhances

the educational experience by providing visual components in the real world, encouraging

vocabulary learning in context (Wu et al., 2024).

VR and AR-based digital tools maximize student participation in education and provide

immersive learning experiences. At the same time, these technologies facilitate the

understanding of complex topics through visualization and interaction. Vesisenaho et al.

state that through these technologies, students can experience the real world in

simulated environments and increase their competence (Vesisenaho et al., 2019). In

addition, VR has the feature of minimizing risks. Thanks to VR technologies integrated

into various medical education programs, students can practice procedures in a safe

environment without the risks associated with real-life applications (Lie et al., 2022).

This also applies to language learning. If these digital tools are used in higher education,

students learning a second language can develop their language skills by experiencing

real life.

4. Impact on Affective and Cognitive Factors

Digital tools used in second language teaching have a significant impact on students’

emotional and cognitive states. Educational experience, student motivation, and

engagement are affected by these technological tools. They allow for varied learning

modalities that can increase students' willingness to actively participate in their education

and create a more dynamic learning environment (Pikhart et al., 2023).

The use of various digital resources can improve communication skills as it enables

students to participate in language learning (Lee & Dressman, 2017). The inclusion of

multimedia elements in education has a positive effect on students, making the learning

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 52-63

Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

environment more interactive and making students more willing to communicate, which

is a very important factor in language acquisition.

Technology-enhanced language learning environments (TELLEs) promote learners'

willingness to communicate (WTC), which is a crucial element in second language

acquisition. TELLEs increase the amount of engagement with content, peers, and

educators as well as expand affective components including self-confidence and

enjoyment. These environments help learners to develop linguistic skills and to reduce

cognitive load; therefore, they increase the prospect of verbal communication (Huang &

Li, 2024).

Gamified and interactive digital technology can contribute to learning by encouraging

students to communicate. As a result, technology has a positive impact on

communication, with the effect of improving interaction, emotional well-being, and

language development. However, more research is needed to understand how digital

technologies can benefit students at different stages of the learning process.

5. The Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Second Language Education

The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed second and foreign language

learning, as in many other fields. Researchers have begun to investigate the effects of

AI on higher education curricula and have found that AI presents both opportunities and

challenges (Chen et al., 2025). The effects of AI-based chatbots on language learning

have recently become one of the popular topics of research (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023;

Bimpong, 2025). We can classify these chatbots as virtual tutoring assistants because

they provide personalized learning experiences as well as real-time feedback (Bimpong,

2025; Bali & Sharma, 2024). Generative AI and large language models (LLMs) such as

ChatGPT have recently gained great importance in language education and offer smart

tutoring opportunities (Voss, 2024; McKenzie, 2024; Bommarito, 2023). If we need to

list the benefits of artificial intelligence in terms of language learning, we can say

personalized learning, instant feedback, and the creation of adaptable learning

environments (Chen et al., 2025; Language Learning Trends for 2025: What's New and

What's Next, 2024; Reeve-Parker, 2024).

Research shows that students increasingly perceive the use of artificial intelligence tools

as beneficial for their learning and future careers (Almusharraf et al., 2024; Reeve-

Parker, 2024).

On the other hand, the use of AI in education raises concerns about the effective and

ethical use of these tools, such as academic honesty and the potential for bias in AI-

generated content (Chen et al., 2025; Voss, 2024; Compilatio, 2025).

Today, the need to use AI-supported digital tools, including chatbots and large language

models, in second language teaching is an undeniable reality. However, their effective

and responsible integration into the field of education, ethical implications, and

pedagogical strategies must be carefully considered.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 52-63

Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

6. Challenges and Best Practices in Implementing Digital Tools

Using digital tools in second language education in higher education can pose challenges

such as the need for reliable internet access and technical support, which can prevent

learners from using digital resources effectively (A Systematic Review of Blended

Learning in Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through the Community of

Inquiry Framework, 2024; Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). Additionally, ensuring adequate

student engagement in online learning environments can be difficult, which is especially

true in blended or fully online courses. It should also be noted that there are differences

in language proficiency levels among students. This situation requires the use of tools

and strategies to meet different needs (A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in

Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry

Framework, 2024). Another challenge to introducing equitable practices in language

teaching is the inequality of access to technology and digital literacy (The Role of Digital

Technologies in Personalizing ESL Instruction: Challenges and Innovations, n.d.). These

challenges that need to be overcome necessitate the identification of best practices.

Based on the findings from the research, some of these practices can be providing

comprehensive training and ongoing support to teachers as well as enabling them to

effectively integrate technology into their teaching practices (Purwanto et al., 2023; Chai

& Jung, 2024). The way to ensure that technology enhances students rather than hinders

them is to align digital tools with pedagogical and learning goals (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024).

Encouraging online communities and increasing opportunities for interaction and

collaboration are essential to maximizing student engagement and creating a supportive

learning environment (A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education:

Second Language Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024; Al-

Rahmi et al., 2024). Another factor to consider when determining digital tools is the need

to consider the needs of all learners to ensure equal access to opportunities (The Role of

Digital Technologies in Personalizing ESL Instruction: Challenges and Innovations, n.d.;

Dahlstrom & Bichsel, 2025).

Developing a proactive approach to successfully integrating digital tools into second

language education can help students overcome challenges related to participation,

technology, and equity. Some of the practices that can be applied include training

teachers, aligning technology with pedagogy, and developing online communities. This

can help maximize the benefits of digital tools used in education.

7. Conclusion and Future Directions

This systematic review attempts to synthesize research on the use of digital tools in

second language education in higher education and to identify the effects of various

technologies on language learning. The analysis reveals that digital tools have a positive

effect on language learning outcomes, student motivation, and student engagement.

With the emergence of artificial intelligence and its use in education, chatbots in particular

have begun to play a major role in language teaching. Thanks to these tools, the potential

for personalization and development of language learning experiences has increased.

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 52-63

Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of

Recent Research

Seçkin Esen

Important insights have been gained from existing research; however, it is also known

that this area needs to be further investigated. Most of the research conducted focuses

on English as the target language, which indicates that more studies should be conducted

on the effectiveness of digital tools in learning other languages. In addition, the long-

term effects of these tools on language learning should be investigated. Another

important issue is the need to examine the extent to which digital technologies affect

students at different language levels. Further research is needed to ensure the

pedagogical effects of the use of AI and LLM in language acquisition as well as their

ethical and effective integration. Future research should also aim to refine the role of

digital tools in developing reading, speaking, listening, and writing skills. Addressing

these gaps can continue to advance the topic of supporting second language education

with digital tools in higher education.

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

THE EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION ALLIANCES: THE CHALLENGES OF

TRANSNATIONAL UNIVERSITY COOPERATION

CONCEPCIÓN ANGUITA-OLMEDO

canguita@ucm.es

Professor at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM, Spain)-Faculty of Political Science

and Sociology, Department of International Relations and Global History, since 2004, and

researcher at the Instituto Complutense de Estudios Internacionales (ICEI). She has held

different management positions: Vice-Dean of Master Studies and External Practices, Academic

Secretary of the Department, Coordinator of the MU in International Politics, Coordinator of the

MU in Defense and International Security Politics and Coordinator of the IR line of the Ph. D. in

Political Science and International Relations of the Faculty of Political and Social Sciences. Elected

representative of the UCM Senate and member of the Faculty Board. She has been granted

Professor Honoris Causa by the Brazilian Ministry of Defence at the proposal of the Escola de

Comando e Estado Maior do Exército do Brasil (ECEME-Rio de Janeiro). She has been awarded

the Cross of Military Merit with White Distinction by the Spanish Ministry of Defense. Visiting

Scholar at: Inter-American Defense College (Washington D.C.) (2022), U. of California at San

Diego (2019), U. of California at Los Angeles (2014). Short stays: U. de La Plata, U. de Lanús, U.

de Varsovia (Poland), U. Autónoma Lisboa, U. Coimbra, ECEME (Rio de Janeiro) and URAP

(Moscow). Concepción Anguita-Olmedo received her PhD by the Universidad Complutense de

Madrid in 1997.

Abstract

The European Higher Education Area has paved the way for a more inclusive and accessible

education by facilitating the mobility of teachers and students among universities adhering to

the Bologna Process framework. At the 2017 Gothenburg Summit, a further step was taken.

Since then, the European Commission has promoted the creation of European University

Alliances aimed at improving the quality of higher education through long-term cooperation

projects among institutions in the member states. In this context, the European Strategy for

Universities was presented in 2022, with four objectives: to strengthen the European

dimension of higher education, to consolidate universities as promoters of the European way

of life, to make universities key agents of change in the ecological and digital transition, and

to position universities as global leaders representing the EU. Achieving these goals

undoubtedly requires overcoming significant challenges, including funding, the establishment

of joint European degrees, the creation of a legal status for alliances, and international

mobility, among others. Therefore, this article will address the current characteristics of higher

education, considering not only the common objectives shared by the universities that form

the alliances but also the challenges they face in this new phase where joint degrees are being

implemented.

Keywords

European Higher Education Alliances, Transnational University Cooperation, Bologna Process,

Labor Competitiveness, Educational Mobility.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 64-84

The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of Transnational

University Cooperation

Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

Resumo

A consolidação do Espaço Europeu do Ensino Superior constituiu um marco fundamental na

promoção de uma educação mais inclusiva, acessível e integrada, favorecendo a mobilidade

de docentes e estudantes entre instituições universitárias aderentes ao quadro definido pelo

Processo de Bolonha. A Cimeira de Gotemburgo, realizada em 2017, representou um avanço

adicional neste percurso, ao estabelecer novas diretrizes para o fortalecimento da cooperação

no ensino superior a nível europeu. Desde então, a Comissão Europeia tem incentivado a

criação de Alianças Universitárias Europeias com o objetivo de elevar a qualidade do ensino

superior, através de projetos de cooperação estratégica e sustentada entre instituições

europeias de ensino superior. Neste quadro, foi apresentada, em 2022, a Estratégia Europeia

para as Universidades, centrada em quatro objetivos estruturantes: (1) reforçar a dimensão

europeia do ensino superior; (2) consolidar o papel das universidades enquanto promotoras

dos valores e do modo de vida europeus; (3) posicionar as universidades como agentes

catalisadores da transição ecológica e digital; e (4) afirmar as instituições de ensino superior

como líderes globais representativas da União Europeia. A concretização destes objetivos

implica, inevitavelmente, a superação de diversos desafios de natureza estrutural, jurídica e

financeira. Entre os mais prementes destacam-se o financiamento sustentável das iniciativas,

a implementação de diplomas conjuntos europeus, a criação de um estatuto jurídico próprio

para as alianças universitárias e a facilitação da mobilidade internacional de estudantes e

profissionais do ensino. O presente artigo propõe-se, assim, a analisar as características

atuais do ensino superior europeu, com especial enfoque nos objetivos comuns definidos pelas

universidades participantes nas alianças e nos obstáculos que enfrentam na implementação

desta nova fase de integração académica, particularmente no que se refere ao

desenvolvimento e reconhecimento de diplomas conjuntos no espaço europeu.

Palavras-chave

Alianças Europeias De Ensino Superior, Cooperação Universitária Transnacional, Processo de

Bolonha, Competitividade Laboral, Mobilidade Educativa.

How to cite this article

Anguita-Olmedo, Concepción (2025). The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of

Transnational University Cooperation. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic

Dossier - Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1,

TD1. June 2025, pp. 64-84. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.5.

Article submitted on 16

April 2025 and accepted for publication on 6 May 2025.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 64-84

The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of Transnational

University Cooperation

Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

THE EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION ALLIANCES: THE

CHALLENGES OF TRANSNATIONAL UNIVERSITY COOPERATION

RESEARCH

CONCEPCIÓN ANGUITA-OLMEDO

Introduction

The European Commission has been promoting the creation of European University

Alliances since 2017, with the fundamental goal of improving educational quality,

enhancing the competitiveness of universities, and increasing the mobility of the entire

university community. Cooperation has become a key axis for adapting educational

offerings to the changes experienced by international society, thereby fostering the

employability of young people and promoting European values and identity.

The European Universities initiative was proposed by the Commission before the

Gothenburg Social Summit in November 2017, with the idea of creating a European

Education Area, with a timeline for implementation extending until 2025. Days later, in

the conclusions of the European Council on December 14 of that year, various proposals

were promoted, one of which was to "strengthen strategic partnerships between higher

education institutions throughout the EU," thereby promoting university networks

(Chaves, 2022). While considerable progress has been made in student mobility through

the Erasmus+ program, it was deemed necessary to take an additional step towards

achieving the Europeanization of university degrees.

In a context where the European Alliances for Higher Education must face significant

difficulties in achieving their objectives, it is worth asking what are the conditions that

the European Alliances for Higher Education face? Are the European Alliances prepared

to offer joint degrees? What challenges do European universities face in achieving

institutionalized cooperation? From a methodological standpoint, this article represents

a qualitative and exploratory investigation of the current situation, starting from the most

immediate past, in relation to the actions of the European Union in higher education and

looking ahead to 2024 with the achievements made. Additionally, the role of the

European Education Alliances and their challenges in improving educational quality and

the mobility of students and professors will be analyzed, which should undoubtedly lead

to better preparation to tackle the current and future challenges of the European labor

market.

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Therefore, it is necessary to consider the evolution of university policy in the current

context. The first part of this article provides an overview of the Bologna Process, from

its implementation to the present day. The second part presents a panorama that

analyzes what the European Strategy for Universities of 2022 has meant for higher

education. The third part of the article addresses the emergence of the European

Alliances for Higher Education; the fourth part presents the current challenges that

European higher education must face, and finally, some conclusions.

1. The Bologna Process. The European Higher Education Area

The beginning of a process of change and transformation in European universities started

to take shape in 1998 with the Sorbonne Declaration

, signed by the ministers

representing France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. This declaration was

inspired by the Magna Charta Universitatum (Observatory Magna Charta Universitatum)

adopted in Bologna ten years earlier. Its objective was to promote a European Higher

Education Area (EHEA), deepening and expanding the path initiated by the Erasmus+

program, which from its inception has fostered student and staff mobility.

The following year would be key to this achievement: in June 1999, twenty-nine

European representatives of education and science signed the Bologna Declaration

titled “The Europe of Knowledge”, to promote the convergence of national systems, thus

giving rise to the creation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)

, with a clearly

pan-European vocation. The Declaration, with a marked political or programmatic

character, outlined a series of objectives (international competitiveness, mobility, and

employability) and instruments

to achieve them, setting the year 2010 as the target

date for the construction of this area. Undoubtedly, this document, although it did not

establish legally binding commitments, was the starting point of a profound educational

reform to which states have had to adapt, a transformation that still continues. Since

then, 49 countries have joined this construction, whose benefits are shared by students,

Joint Declaration for the harmonization of the design of the European Higher Education System, 25 May 1998,

in https://ehea.info/page-ministerial-declarations-and-communiques (accessed 28 January 2025).

Signed by 400 rectors of European universities.

Joint Declaration of the European Ministers of Education meeting in Bologna on 19 June 1999, in

http://www.eees.es/pdf/Bolonia_ES.pdf (accessed 31 January 2025).

The Member States of the EHEA are, in chronological order, since 1999: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech

Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,

Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,

Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom; since 2001: Croatia, Cyprus, Liechtenstein and Turkey; since

2003: Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Holy See, the Russian See, Serbia and the Republic of

Macedonia; since 2005: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine; Montenegro (2007), Kazakhstan

(2010) and Belarus (2015), the Republic of San Marino (2020). The Principality of Monaco is the only member

of the Council of Europe that has not been integrated into the EHEA. Other States or territories have applied to

join the Bologna Process, but their candidacy has been rejected; namely, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, Kosovo and the

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Due to the war between Ukraine and Russia, at the meeting held in

Strasbourg in April 2022, it was decided to suspend all representation rights of the Russian Federation and

Belarus, see: https://ehea.info/page-full_members (accessed 26 January 2025).

The instruments cover six aspects: adopting a transparent system of comparable grades; following a system

essentially based on two main cycles (undergraduate and postgraduate); developing the European Credit

System (ECTS); promote mobility; to promote European cooperation for the assurance of academic quality;

and to promote the European dimension in the university curriculum (Rodríguez Rodríguez, 2018).

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academics, technical, management and administrative staff, higher education institutions

themselves, and society at large.

In successive meetings—Prague (2001), Berlin (2003), Bergen (2005), London (2007),

Louvain-la-Neuve (2009), Budapest and Vienna (2010), Bucharest (2012), Yerevan

(2015), Paris (2018), Rome (2020), and Tirana (2024)—significant progress has been

made in this process, although the path has not been easy. National and academic-

institutional resistance makes the process even more complex. It is important to

remember that "education is closely linked to issues of national, cultural, and linguistic

identity, and is crucial in responding to social needs and the demands of the economic

and productive system” (Valle, 2006, p. 263), in addition to presenting difficulties arising

from the structural changes necessary to implement methodologies based on student

self-learning (Delgado Martínez, 2019). In this sense, it is essential to consider that these

new methodologies must combine theoretical knowledge with the acquisition of skills,

where both teacher and student participation are fundamental (Calvo & Mingorance-

Arnáiz, 2009).

The Bologna Process cannot be understood without recognizing its connection to two

major vectors of change that occurred in society at the end of the 20th century. The first

vector is related to economic, political, technological, social, and cultural transformation;

the second, to the expansion of the European Union and the emergence of European

citizenship. Therefore:

“Bologna becomes comprehensible in the transition from the ‘modern’ society to the

‘knowledge’ society, taking both concepts—modernity and knowledge society—as

synthesis-concepts, to describe in one case the society resulting from the combined

action of the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, and the Liberal Political

Revolutions, and in the other, the society shaped at the end of the 20th century by the

combined effect of various processes” (Bajo Santos, 2010, p. 434).

At the core of this process lies the idea that university must be the driving force behind

research and innovation and therefore must undergo the necessary changes to adapt to

new times in which quality and excellence enable future professionals to develop the

skills needed to perform in a globalized world that is completely different from that of the

20th century.

Therefore, the Bologna Process requires, among other things, that European universities

strive to adapt not only from an academic-curricular perspective but also structurally, as

without this, its goals cannot converge. The curricular adaptation required universities to

adopt a three-cycle structure, with widespread use of the ECTS (European Credit Transfer

System)

. Although this system existed long before the Bologna Process—as it allowed

for student mobility and the validation and equivalency of studies within the Erasmus

European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS). A unit of measurement of study or work and of

the competences or learning outcomes acquired. The ECTS is based on the student's effort (not only the hours

of face-to-face classes are counted, but also the necessary time to be dedicated to the preparation of practical

tests or, where appropriate, laboratory, readings or partial and final exams). It was implemented in 2010,

although the "ECTS User Guide" was approved at the Yerevan Conference (Armenia) in 2015, becoming the

reference document. In this sense, each ECTS would correspond to 25 hours of student dedication, of which

only 10 would be face-to-face.

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program—its implementation has been one of the most important reforms adopted by

universities. The widespread use of ECTS has led to educational harmonization, removing

obstacles to the recognition of studies, facilitating the comparability of education

systems, and paving the way for what was still to come: the European Degree.

This transformation would become a fundamental pillar not only to facilitate the

recognition of studies between universities, but also for the new design of curricula, as it

became a precondition for their structure. This unit of measurement (ECTS) also

introduced an innovation in the recognition of teaching work, as it began to account not

only for classroom teaching hours, but also for the time a professor dedicates to

preparing, organizing, guiding, and supervising students’ work outside the classroom. As

a result, this change in the unit of measurement inevitably led to the adoption of a new

educational model, centered on self-directed learning and student activities, as well as

on independent work to achieve learning outcomes, rather than on content and the

number of hours taught by instructors.

It was at the ministerial meeting in Bergen

, in 2005, that the generic descriptors for the

key levels of the EHEA were adopted: Bachelor’s degree (replacing the traditional

“licenciatura”), Master’s degree (with variations like “Maestría” or “Magister”), and the

Doctorate. The Bachelor’s degree, depending on the country, could have a duration of

three years (180 ECTS) or four years (240 ECTS). The Master’s degree required at least

60 ECTS, typically ranging between 60 and 120 ECTS, and could have three orientations:

academic specialization, professional training, or initiation to research. To get a

Doctorate, a student must have completed 300 ECTS, of which at least 60 must come

from a Master’s program (Valle, 2006).

Likewise, one of the principal issues addressed in the various meetings is the need to

adopt common quality standards. In this regard, it becomes clear that to advance the

EHEA, it is necessary to adopt “common criteria for evaluation, accreditation of studies,

and mutual recognition” (García Gallego & Blanco Alonso, 2007). In the year 2000, the

European Network for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) was established.

Just a year later, at the Prague meeting (2001), a call was made for universities, other

higher education institutions, national agencies, and the ENQA

to collaborate in the

design of a common reference framework (Rodríguez Rodríguez, 2018).

At the Bergen meeting, the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the

European Higher Education Area (ESG) were officially approved. Since then, considerable

progress has been made in this area, but it was still considered necessary to “improve

their clarity, applicability, usefulness, and scope” (Standards and Guidelines for Quality

Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (ESG), 2015, p. 5). With this aim, in

2012, the E4 Group (ENQA, ESU, EUA, EURASHE), in cooperation with Education

International (EI), BUSINESSEUROPE, and the European Quality Assurance Register for

The European Higher Education Area-Achieving the goals. Communiqué of the Conference of European

Ministers responsible for Higher Education. Bergen, 19–20 May 2005, accessed in

http://www.aneca.es/content/download/12230/142160/file/7.Comunicado_Bergen_2005.pdf (accessed 17

March 2025).

The EUA (European University Association), the EURASHE (European Association of Institutions in Higher

Education) and the ESIB (since 2007 ESU, European Students Union) will also participate.

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Higher Education (EQAR), was invited to prepare a proposal for the revision of the ESG

(Ferreira, 2019).

As a result of the recommendations presented, during the Erevan meeting in 2015, the

Ministers of Higher Education approved the revised ESG

, which were the result of a

reflective process, and a public consultation carried out throughout the European Higher

Education Area. This document, containing the quality assurance criteria, has become

the reference tool for universities and quality assurance agencies. Among its key

objectives are: establishing a common framework to ensure quality in teaching and

learning; providing transparent information on the quality of higher education; and

promoting mutual trust to facilitate recognition of credits and international mobility.

Undoubtedly, implementing quality assurance is considered one of the core commitments

of the Bologna Process. During this same conference, the “ECTS Users’ Guide” was also

adopted as an official EHEA document, replacing previous versions that had been used

unofficially and were never formally approved by any Ministerial Conference. Thus, it

became a legitimized reference document, especially as it aims to promote the correct

implementation of learning outcomes.

Paris hosted the next Conference of Ministers responsible for higher education on May

24–25, 2018. In it, the key commitments underpinning the EHEA were examined. In

addition, the creation of three thematic working groups was approved, which between

the years 2018 and 2020 were to address the following issues: the development of

national qualification frameworks, compatible with the overarching qualifications

framework in the EHEA; compliance with the Lisbon Recognition Convention; and the

strengthening of quality, in accordance with the ESG in the European Higher Education

Area (EHEA, 2018).

At the 2020 Ministers’ Conference, held in Rome, there was a reflection on the progress

made in the 21 years since the approval of the Bologna Declaration, but also the work

lines for the following years were set, with 2030 on the horizon. This Conference was an

opportunity to strengthen cooperation among member countries. As a result of this

meeting, some commitments were adopted:

“to provide opportunities and support inclusive and equitable education for all people; to

reinforce social inclusion and quality by leveraging the opportunities offered by

technology; to protect and promote research, innovation, and knowledge transfer in all

areas; and to promote student mobility and strengthen the Erasmus program, aiming to

ensure that at least 20% of students completing their studies within the EHEA have had

a learning or internship experience abroad, among others” (EHEA, 2020).

And finally, in May 2024, Tirana hosted what is, so far, the latest meeting held by the

Ministers of Higher Education of Europe. Among the commitments adopted for the

following three years, the following stand out: to make the EHEA an inclusive and

interconnected space; the reaffirmation of the commitment to academic freedom,

integrity, and institutional autonomy; to develop and publish action plans to address the

To check the changes, see Comparative Analysis of the ESG 2015 and ESG 2005 in ENQA, 2016,

https://www.enqa.eu/publications/comparative-analysis-of-the-esg-2015-and-esg-2005/ (accessed 25 March

2025).

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implementation issues of the Bologna Process and promote knowledge exchange; to

update the ECTS Users’ Guide and the ESG to reflect current developments and improve

quality assurance; to promote flexible, quality-assured, and recognized learning

pathways, including micro-credentials; to ensure the responsible use of AI in education

and research; to allow hybrid mobility and virtual exchanges; to make automatic

recognition of qualifications and periods of study abroad a reality; to ensure proper

monitoring of political commitments and plan future priorities of the EHEA; to adopt the

new Rules of Procedure for the EHEA and assess the feasibility of an independent

secretariat to permanently support the Bologna Process Secretariat and the Bologna

Follow-Up Group (BFUG) (Torres, 2024).

Throughout this process, the support of the European Union has been fundamental, in

understanding that the rapid and profound changes currently taking place in society

require universities for societies to become more open, democratic, just, and sustainable.

That is why it continues to advance in university cooperation. Thus, in 2022, the European

Strategy for Universities was approved (European Commission, 2022a), which aims to

give continuity to the changes experienced by higher education and to promote further

progress.

2. The European Strategy for Universities (2022)

Although universities have led this change to implement the Bologna Process, the support

of other collaborating institutions and political actors who have driven this modernization

and adaptation has been decisive (Alexiadou & Rambla, 2023). The creation of the EHEA

cannot be understood apart from the very process of European integration. Although this

process is not exclusive to EU member countries, as has already been established, it has

been the European institutions that have driven the modernization of universities,

considering research and innovation as key issues for generating economic growth,

employment, and social cohesion. Regarding the latter, the fact that educational

achievements are closely linked to employment and employability might suggest that

European education policies have been vulnerable to their “capture” (Antunes, 2016).

However, higher education's strategic nature cannot be denied, nor can the capacity of

lifelong learning and training to provide solutions and responses to the problems of

today's society.

Since the extraordinary European Council of Lisbon in 2000, the EU has been actively

involved, through the funding of activities, to promote "the economic competitiveness of

the area by integrating scientific and technological knowledge into production and

services" (Rodríguez Rodríguez, 2018, p. 7). In addition, various European Council

Resolutions and numerous European Commission Communications have made it possible

to establish areas to focus on to achieve this modernization: (1) Bringing universities

closer to the knowledge economy, (2) Reforming governance, (3) Overcoming financial

scarcity, and (4) Seeking closer relationships between universities and businesses (Mora,

2009). Undoubtedly, European institutions are aware of the potential of higher education,

as in the European area there are "more than 5,000 higher education institutions, 17.5

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million higher education students, 1.35 million higher education teachers, and 1.17

million researchers" (European Commission, 2022d).

In this regard, in January 2022, the European Union approved the Strategy for

Universities, which sets out objectives and a set of key measures for achieving them.

Among the objectives, the following are highlighted (European Commission, 2022b, p.

1):

− “Strengthening the European dimension of higher education and research.

− Consolidating universities as key points for promoting our European Way of Life

through support measures focused on academic and research careers, the quality

and future relevance of skills, diversity, inclusion, democratic practices, fundamental

rights, and academic values.

− Empowering universities as key agents of change in the dual ecological and digital

transition; and

− Boosting universities as engines for the role and global leadership of the EU”.

This Strategy and the subsequent Council Recommendation of the European Union

(European Council, 2022) – in which Member States were invited to establish coherent

and compatible political priorities for promoting transnational cooperation and making

the necessary investments for it – show how the European Union and the Bologna

Process, with its pan-European nature, are working hand in hand with the same goal: to

make universities and the higher education sector the engine of societal transformation

by placing them at the heart of education, research, and innovation. This Strategy is,

therefore, "a call to EU countries and higher education institutions across Europe to join

forces" (European Commission, 2023a). In addition, the need is expressed for

universities to work to ensure that more and more young people are equipped "with

digital skills and skills for the green transition, or developing green solutions through

technological and social innovation, if the higher education sector pulls its weight"

(European Commission, 2022c). Regarding digital skills, the European Union states that

by 2030, 45% of people between the ages of 25 and 34 must have a higher education

degree, and at least 60% of adults must participate in learning initiatives (European

Commission, 2022d).

This Strategy represents a shift for the European Commission, as until then it had focused

on coordinating European policies. However, at this point, it takes a turn to emphasize

organizational coordination, that is, the establishment of European Alliances, highlighting

the need for cross-border university cooperation as a means to drive European policies

(Maassen, Stensaker, & Rosso, 2022). Therefore, it is stated that universities need to

work to ensure that more and more young people are equipped "with digital skills and

skills for the green transition, or developing green solutions through technological and

social innovation, if the higher education sector pulls its weight" (European Commission,

2022c).

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The implementation of this Strategy and the Council Recommendations was expected to

yield significant results. One of these was the adoption of the European Approach to

Microcredentials (DOUE, 2022), which is considered a tool for higher education

institutions to facilitate flexible and modular short duration learning that allows for the

certification of the acquisition of specific skills and competencies tailored to the needs set

by the evolution of society and the labor market. These microcredentials are not intended

to replace traditional qualifications but to provide a complement to them. Although

microcredentials already existed in Europe, this Recommendation aims to boost the

definition of common standards. Furthermore, it is believed that microcredentials can

facilitate the achievement of the EU’s main objectives to be reached from that date until

2030, “in particular the objective that 60% of all adults participate in training activities

every year and an employment rate of at least 78%” (DOUE, 2022, p. 7).

Another of the expected results was to continue to deepen the joint European degree

label. At that time, 90 universities and 17 ministries were participating in 10 Erasmus+

pilot projects where effective, institutionalized cooperation instruments were being

tested, leading European universities to a new level and paving the way for the

universities of the future. In line with this, work is being done on a possible European

legal status for university alliances, which would facilitate closer cooperation, but also

the possibility of sharing human, technical, data, education, research, and innovation

capacities (European Council, 2022).

Following the path set years earlier, this Strategy includes support for the creation of 60

university alliances under what is known as the "European Universities Initiative" (EUI)

launched by the European Commission in 2018.

“This aims to develop and establish long-term, structural, sustainable, and systemic

cooperation in education, research, and innovation through the creation of interuniversity

European campuses where students, staff, and researchers from all over Europe can

enjoy seamless mobility and create new knowledge together across countries and

disciplines” (European Commission, 2022b).

In the development of this initiative, there was a lot of skepticism about its

implementation due to the challenges it presented, as it could not be considered the

same to approach a collaborative interuniversity project as to an institutionalized

integration (Maassen, Stensaker, & Rosso, 2022), as this was one of the most important

steps in higher education that in the near future would allow the creation of true European

Universities (Jungblut, Maassen, & Elken, 2020). More than 500 higher education

institutions were called to participate in these alliances.

3. European Alliances: a new form of transnational university

cooperation

The "European Universities" are transnational alliances of higher education institutions.

The concept of European Universities was introduced by French President Emmanuel

Macron on September 26, 2017, in his speech on the refoundation of Europe, titled "For

a Sovereign, United, and Democratic Europe" (Macron, 2017). The proposal would create

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"European universities that will be a network of universities from several European

countries, setting up a path where each of their students will study abroad and take

courses in at least two languages" (République Française, 2025). In this speech, he

identified the great principles that should support it, with the goal of achieving it by 2024.

The objective was to create the universities of the future, based first on innovative

teaching methods and a multidisciplinary approach; second, on the promotion of

multilingualism and European values; and third, to respond to the challenges posed by

today’s society. The idea was none other than to form interuniversity European

campuses, both physical and virtual, where degrees would be jointly taught and where

at least 50% of the students could move between universities.

Although the push for its formation is found in the 2022 Strategy, since 2019 and in

2020, 2022, 2023, and 2024, the European Commission has made calls under the

European Universities Initiative to fund the alliances. In the first call of 2019, 17

university alliances were selected, and 24 in the second call, made in 2020. Currently,

there are a total of 65 alliances composed of 570 European institutions from 35

countries

. To support the creation of these alliances, the initiative has been linked to

the Erasmus+ 2021-2027 program with a budget of 1.1 billion euros, the largest so far

(European Commission, 2024d).

The criteria for its funding, in addition to the creation of inter-university campuses, are

based on the use of innovative methodologies centered on the student and the possibility

for the student to follow an individualized itinerary with multidisciplinary teaching

grounded in challenge-based learning. Furthermore, the alliances must follow a

sustainability strategy and ensure geographical balance.

In parallel with the latest 2024 call, where 14 new alliances were approved, a project

was selected that brings together all European alliances. This is the project "FOREU4ALL",

which aims to be an instrument for “exchanging good practices by establishing a

community of practice and strengthening synergies beyond the alliances” (République

Française, 2025). This project has a total budget of 1.2 million euros, of which 962,642

have been financed by the EU. It has two main objectives: the first is to reinforce

collaboration and learning among the alliances. Shared experiences will allow the

exchange of strengths from each one, using those synergies to advance. The second is

to “increase the dissemination of results and transferable models within the higher

education sector to allow for broader use” (arQus European University Alliance, 2025).

To achieve these objectives that would benefit all the Alliances, FOREU4ALL aims to:

“establish thematic groups on key issues to facilitate the exchange of good practices;

prepare guidelines and case studies on best practices that provide valuable ideas and

lessons for the alliances between European universities and the higher education

Number of participating institutions by country: Albania (3) Austria (17), Belgium (17), Bosnia and

Herzegovina (4), Bulgaria (13), Croatia (8), Cyprus (7), Czechia (12), Denmark (7), Estonia (5), Finland (23),

France (64), Germany (67), Greece (15), Hungary (6), Iceland (4), Ireland (4), Italy (46), Latvia (7), Lithuania

(11), Luxembourg (2), Malta (2), Montenegro (1), Netherlands (the) (21), Norway (11), Poland (32), Portugal

(29), Republic of North Macedonia (3), Romania (22), Serbia (3), Slovakia (8), Slovenia (4), Sapin (56),

Sweden (24) and Turkey (5) (European Commission, 2024a).

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sector in general; collaborate with experts who contribute to political dialogue;

organize events and activities such as webinars, meetings, and workshops to share

information and engagement; build the community through activities that foster a

sense of belonging and cooperation; promote the dissemination of transferable results,

as well as events, webinars, and workshops organized by European university

alliances” (Arqus Universidad de Granada, 2025).

The support for European alliances from the Commission is also strengthened by the

Master Plan for a European Degree, from March 2024. With this Master Plan, the aim is

to ease the path for alliances by reducing bureaucratic procedures and achieving

automatic recognition of joint degrees across the EU. This idea of a joint degree

automatically recognized was already considered in the European Commission's

Communication on achieving the European Higher Education Area by 2025 (published in

September 2020). This European degree would constitute “a key element for students of

all levels and disciplines to choose what, where, and when to study within the members

of a transnational university alliance, following solid pedagogical guidelines” (European

Commission, 2020).

However, the diversity of higher education systems across Europe does not allow for

rapid progress. Therefore, the European Commission proposes two approaches: first,

through a preparatory European label, students would receive a certificate with the

European degree label along with their joint degree. Second, through an actual European

degree,

“This new type of qualification would be based on common criteria and anchored in

national legislation. It would be awarded jointly by several universities from different

countries or, possibly, by a European legal entity created by these universities:

students would receive a ‘European degree’ that would be automatically recognized”

(European Commission, 2024b).

The attainment of a European Degree would have added value for students, universities,

and employers. First, for educational institutions, it would allow them to eliminate the

existing barriers and facilitate the creation of joint programs, which would increase

competitiveness and attractiveness. Both issues would serve to offer better learning

experience and greater opportunities, which would be a significant incentive for being

considered a good choice for students worldwide. Secondly, students would have the

opportunity to study at different universities across Europe, obtain a universally

recognized diploma, in addition to having the chance to receive more innovative

education, thus gaining transversal skills. Without a doubt, this would provide them with

better access to a demanding labor market with the highest qualifications. Lastly, for

employers, it would provide the possibility of having highly qualified individuals with the

necessary preparation to face the challenges of international society and a significant

adaptability to the current labor market. But the European Union and its states would

also benefit, as it would help strengthen European identity, student mobility, attract

talent to the EU, and reinforce strategic autonomy (European Commission, 2024c).

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Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

To take these steps toward the European Degree, the Commission has presented specific

actions: first, the creation of a European degree policy laboratory that will develop the

guidelines for the implementation of European degrees, composed of experts from higher

education institutions as well as accreditation agencies or social and economic

stakeholders. This laboratory will be financed by the Erasmus+ program in 2025.

Secondly, an annual degree forum that will not only monitor progress but also serve as

guidance for the next steps. Thirdly, funding with Erasmus+ grants for "European

university pathways projects" that ultimately lead to a European degree (European

Commission, 2024b).

4. The next challenges in European Higher Education

In January 2025, the European Commission presented the Compass for Competitiveness

based on the Draghi Report (European Central Bank, 2025), which provided a diagnosis

and formulated recommendations to boost the competitiveness of the European Union.

One of the horizontal facilitators proposed as a roadmap was to promote professional

skills and quality employment, placing citizens and their qualifications at the foundation

of competitiveness. To achieve this goal, the "Union of Capacities" initiative is announced,

with a plan to "improve education, training, and high-quality lifelong learning" (European

Commission, 2025). European universities, and by extension, University Alliances,

therefore become a fundamental pillar for achieving this, as research and innovation will

drive global competitiveness.

However, the Alliances, in their role as a driving force for change, still face significant

challenges. In all the reports analyzing the situation of the European Alliances, similarities

arise regarding the challenges they face. In general terms, there are differences in legal

and financial frameworks, as well as in the culture and organization of research, where

each university has different priorities. Undoubtedly, all of this makes collaboration more

complex and requires a high degree of flexibility in the approaches, as otherwise, not all

universities will be able to participate in the initiatives within the Alliances (European

Commission: European Research Executive Agency, O'Neill, G., and Acheson, H., 2023),

nor will they serve the purpose intended by the European Union in this "Union of

Capacities" initiative.

As already seen earlier, achieving the joint European degree is the most important

challenge in the short term; however, there are other challenges that define the path of

the European alliances: the legal status, the European student card, the simplification of

quality procedures, or sustainable financing.

• Legal Status for the Alliances

Greater and deeper cooperation within the European Higher Education Alliances requires

maximizing the resources and infrastructures of each one. In this sense, one of the main

instruments for institutionalized cooperation is, without a doubt, the adoption of a specific

transnational legal status that would allow overcoming national regulatory complexities.

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June 2025, pp. 64-84

The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of Transnational

University Cooperation

Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

Considering a structural issue and a matter of the functioning of the Alliances, the

Council’s draft Recommendation to the Commission of January 2022 emphasized that

“A legal status for the alliances of higher education institutions would facilitate access,

exchange, and sharing of joint services and resources (financial, human, digital, and

physical). The absence of such a legal status makes it more difficult for higher education

institutions to achieve a deeper level of cooperation and limits their competitiveness”

(European Council, 2022).

With this legal basis, the European Alliances would gain added value by addressing the

challenges of transnational cooperation. This legal instrument would simplify the adoption

of strategic decisions, joint contracting, or sharing of human, technical, data, teaching,

research, and innovation resources. In this sense, most of these issues depend on

national regulations, which complicate, if not prevent, appropriate transnational

collaboration, for example, in the mobility of researchers.

Although the European Union has recommended trying the existing legal instruments,

such as the European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC)

or the European

Economic Interest Grouping (EEIG)

, the most widespread conclusion is that there is no

European instrument sufficiently suitable to meet the needs of these Alliances. Therefore,

in February 2023, four projects funded by the Erasmus+ program budget were launched

(European Commission, 2022e) with the aim of exploring new forms of cooperation

regarding possible legal status. Although the European Union had set mid-2024

(European Commission, 2022b) as the reference deadline for developing this legal status,

as of today, no legal form has been adopted to regulate the Alliances. This is undoubtedly

one of the main challenges in the immediate future.

• The European Student Card (ESC)

The idea of creating a European Student Card (ESC) began in 2016 and was a pilot project

funded by the EU for the period 2016-2018. With it, all students would have easy access

to the services of host institutions across Europe during their mobility. But it would also

make universities' work easier, as they could quickly and easily verify the students’

status, that is, where they are enrolled, at a European level by digitalizing the procedures.

In this way, all data would be centralized, which would reduce paperwork and facilitate

the transition to digital processes. It is expected that by 2025, a large number of students

will benefit from its use, whether with a physical or virtual card. This card will grant

access to the host university's campus, library services, or other benefits available to

students, enhancing their experience as mobility students. From the outset, the goal was

for it to be available to students in the Erasmus+ program countries between 2022 and

2025, not only at universities but also for service providers on and off-campus to

recognize it.

See Regulation (EC) nº 1082/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2006 on the

European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) (OJ L 210, 31.7.2006, p. 19).

See Regulation (CEE) nº 2137/85 of the Council, of 25 July 1985, on the establishment of a European

Economic Interest Grouping (EEIG) (OJ L 199, 31.7.1985, p. 1).

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Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

To ensure its implementation, a governance model has been created in which the

European Commission (EC) is involved, as it defines policies, oversees implementation,

and provides resources; the ESC Steering Committee, which sets the strategic direction

and ensures adherence to policies; the Directorate-General for Education and Culture

(DG EAC), which promotes the success of the project, defines plans, and oversees

progress; the ESC Solution Providers, which scale the project and manage strategic

activities; and the User’s Working Groups, which consult on technical and business needs

and test developments (European Commission, 2023b).

The European Student Card is implemented through a digital platform called ESC Router

(ESC-R), which has been operational since October 2024. This platform allows

participating institutions to validate student status in real-time and integrate all the

features of the card, including a unique card identifier, a student identification number,

and an ESC logo composed of a QR code, the text "European Student Card," and the EU

flag, which certify authenticity and validity at the European level (European Commission,

2024g). By the end of December 2024, 18 countries were using the ESC, 15 of which are

EU members and 3 non-associated countries. Additionally, 16 EU member countries and

third-party countries associated with the Erasmus+ Program are connected to the ESC-

R, although they do not issue the ESC. Furthermore, 3.4 million student cards had been

issued, with 1.56 million active cards. A total of 940 organizations are registered in the

ESC-Router, and more than 308 organizations issue the ESC (Conferenza dei Retori delle

Università Italiane, 2024).

• Simplification of quality assurance procedures

Quality assurance is a key element for any qualification, even more so for transnational

joint qualifications. Since the beginning of the Bologna Process, it has become an

essential tool within the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). It was expected that

by 2005, all member states would have a quality assurance system that included the

following elements: “definition of the responsibilities of the bodies and institutions

involved; evaluation of programs or institutions; accreditation system, certification or

similar processes; international participation; cooperation and networking” (European

Ministers of Higher Education, 2003). These agencies should verify that higher education

institutions have a coherent institutional strategy concerning teaching and learning

(European Commission, 2024f).

There are three main objectives of quality assurance activities (Backhouse Erazo,

Domínguez Fernández, & Gutierrez Gómez, 2012). The first is control or accountability,

as institutions must comply with a set of standards that allow them to meet the minimum

quality requirements. Therefore, universities have the primary responsibility for quality,

as it is based on the principle of institutional autonomy. The second is the guarantee of

quality, which seeks to assess whether institutions meet what they offer and have the

resources and procedures in place to evaluate the minimum quality standards. In this

regard, to assess quality, there needs to be both internal mechanisms (within higher

education institutions) and external ones that oversee quality (Posca Cohen, 2024).

Finally, improvement through recommendations for their performance. Since Berlin

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2003, work has been done in this direction, promoting a “culture of quality” (Matarranz,

2021).

Moving forward in time, the 2024 Council Recommendation focuses on working on quality

and recognition systems that "support transparency, mobility, and transnational

cooperation, and are based on high quality and mutual trust." Although since 2006, both

the Council and the Parliament had been insisting on greater international cooperation,

these Recommendations reinforce the progress made so far, such as the creation of the

European Register of Quality Assurance Agencies, which allows Member States to choose

which one to use (European Commission, 2024e). However, things have changed

significantly since 2006, especially because the emergence of European Alliances has

been a revolution in the higher education system.

Today, there are obstacles that hinder the provision of joint educational offerings. The

procedures established by universities and agencies remain lengthy and costly, which is

why the European Union advises working to simplify and improve these processes. It is

a necessity for the university of the future that higher education institutions can adapt

their programs more quickly to the needs of society, but also that they can more easily

offer competitive programs that are recognized throughout the European Union with all

the guarantees of quality.

• Long-term sustainable financing: pooling resources and capacities

Another major challenge facing the European Universities initiative is undoubtedly

financing. Being a strategic project for the European Union, the Alliances are primarily

financed through the Erasmus+ programs and the European Excellence Initiative,

regardless of the national funds each university receives. However, these funds are not

sufficient. Revenues come from different sources: first, the Erasmus+ and Horizon 2020

programs (for research and innovation), with the budget from Erasmus+ not exceeding

80% of the Alliance's budget. Second, the national contributions from the governments

and universities participating in an Alliance

. Third, external contributions such as private

sources, though this is not common. A report from the Directorate-General for Education,

Youth, Sport and Culture of the European Commission (Directorate-General for

Education, Youth, Sport and Culture Youth, Education and Erasmus+, 2022) reveals that

the total costs of the Alliances' activities are higher than the funding they receive from

the EU and from the universities themselves, and that in the coming years, their financial

sustainability will still require funds from both the EU and the Member States.

However, the Strategy for Universities maintains that the money coming from the EU

should only complement national public funding and investment from third parties, both

public and private, which is still far from the reality. It is true that participation in an

Financing can take different forms, for further in-depth information see the Final Report of the Study on the

state and effectiveness of national funding systems of higher education to support the European Universities

Initiative, pp. 46 and seq (Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture Youth, Education and

Erasmus+, 2022).

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Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

Alliance adds value to the participating institutions and that this should be rewarded with

funding, but it is also true that there is a need to generate social wealth with this value.

Clearly, Alliances must diversify their funding sources to be sustainable in the long term.

This is why they are required to explore synergies to find other sources of support, such

as micro-credential certificates or joint research projects. At this point, we return to the

need for Alliances to have their own legal status, not only to be able to apply for different

types of funding alongside their institutional partner members, but especially because

with this status, resources and capacities could be shared, as mentioned earlier, which

would undoubtedly lower the costs of the Alliances.

Conclusions

European Alliances have been a further step in the European Higher Education Area,

driven by European institutions but also by the need to respond to the challenges of

today's international society. University Alliances have become one of the key pillars of

European policies aimed at innovation and competitiveness.

Although academic and curricular adaptation has not been easy, over the years a

European Higher Education Area has been achieved; however, the real obstacles lie in

the structural adaptation of universities and in the legal framework that allows for the

design of formal structures and decision-making bodies. This would undoubtedly also

have economic benefits for the Alliances, as it would allow the finding of public or private

funding beyond the contributions from the universities themselves or from the European

Union. Overcoming all the challenges requires continuous long-term effort, otherwise the

Alliances will not be able to develop institutionalized transnational collaboration that

overcomes national barriers. The human factor is also important; in these governance

tasks, academics, researchers, students, and administrative and service staff must also

be involved, or there will be a risk of disconnecting from the fundamental objectives of

the Alliances, which is none other than the effective transmission of knowledge, learning,

and innovation.

The European Union must continue working to transform higher education. The Compass

for Competitiveness requires Alliances capable of increasing the qualifications of citizens

and fostering labor skills from which companies will benefit, leading to greater

competitiveness in European markets. In this sense, if Alliances can offer high-quality,

attractive, and sustainable academic and research careers, the European Union will be

able to compete by attracting and retaining talent.

It is therefore necessary to continue working on actions that transform European higher

education. The universality of the European student card, the automatic recognition of

qualifications, the design of a legal framework for the Alliances, and sustainable,

inclusive, and more technological programs will undoubtedly help this transformation.

In short, European higher education alliances are essential to fostering cooperation and

integration between educational institutions from different countries. Collaboration

means the exchange of knowledge, resources, and best practices, enriching the

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educational experience for both students and faculty. Cooperation allows us to address

common challenges, resulting in higher quality qualifications.

The Alliances promote student mobility, which fosters cultural exchange and a deeper

understanding of European values and culture. But they also promote researcher mobility

by creating innovative international networks, which drives the economic and social

development of the region. In a world where industry increasingly depends on technology

and innovation, University Alliances play a key role in preparing future generations by

applying student-centered teaching methods and encouraging lifelong learning, tools that

will undoubtedly enable the personal and professional growth necessary to face the

challenges and opportunities of the future.

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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Experiences and Challenges

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HIGHER EDUCATION FROM AN INCLUSIVE GOVERNANCE PERSPECTIVE:

EXPANDING THE BOUNDARIES OF SOCIAL JUSTICE

NILAY NEYIŞCI

nilbasar@hacettepe.edu.tr

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nilay Neyişci is a faculty member in the Department of Educational Sciences, at

Hacettepe University in Ankara (Turkey), where she has served since 2022. She received her

B.A. in Sociology from the Middle East Technical University, and completed her M.A. and Ph.D. in

Educational Administration at Hacettepe University. Her academic work focuses on higher

education, combining theoretical and practical approaches in areas such as educational policy,

leadership, and organizational behavior through an interdisciplinary approach. Her research

interests include the sociology of education, leadership, digital transformation and digital

leadership, educational governance, family studies, technology addiction, migration and

education, and social networks.

Abstract

This study addresses the significance and applicability of an inclusive governance approach in

higher education institutions. It emphasizes that higher education is evolving globally toward

the goals of democratization, diversity, and inclusion. Inclusive governance encompasses the

active participation of stakeholders in decision-making processes, transparency,

accountability, and participatory structures. In this context, the study highlights the necessity

of involving students, academic and administrative staff, and external stakeholders in

university governance processes. The study asserts that inclusivity involves not only

representation but also effective participation and decision-making power, which must be

supported by institutional culture, leadership practices, and structural arrangements. It also

emphasizes that inclusive governance contributes significant value to higher education in

areas such as quality assurance, academic success, and social responsibility. In conclusion,

higher education institutions are expected to serve not only as knowledge producers but also

as environments where social justice, equality, and participation are actively upheld. To

achieve this transformation, it is recommended that the core principles and practices of

inclusive governance be integrated into the administrative systems of universities.

Keywords

Social Justice, Access To Higher Education, Inclusive Governance, Disadvantaged Groups,

Education Policy.

Resumo

O presente estudo examina a relevância e a aplicabilidade de uma abordagem de governação

inclusiva no contexto das Instituições de Ensino Superior. Salienta-se que o ensino superior,

à escala global, se encontra em transformação, orientando-se progressivamente para os

princípios da democratização, da diversidade e da inclusão. A governação inclusiva, neste

quadro, é entendida como um modelo que promove a participação ativa das diversas partes

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June 2025, pp. 85-99

The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of Transnational

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interessadas nos processos de tomada de decisão, sustentado em princípios de transparência,

responsabilidade e estruturas participativas. O estudo sublinha a importância de integrar

estudantes, pessoal docente e não docente, bem como entidades externas, nos mecanismos

de governação universitária, reconhecendo que a inclusão vai além da mera representação

simbólica, implicando uma participação efetiva e um poder de decisão real. Este modelo de

governação deve ser apoiado por uma cultura institucional propícia, práticas de liderança

inclusiva e dispositivos estruturais adequados. O estudo defende que a adoção de práticas

inclusivas de governação acrescenta valor significativo ao ensino superior, particularmente

em domínios como a garantia da qualidade, o sucesso académico e a responsabilidade social

das instituições. Em síntese, considera-se que as instituições de ensino superior devem

assumir-se não apenas como centros de produção e disseminação de conhecimento, mas

também como espaços que promovem ativamente a justiça social, a igualdade e a

participação democrática. Para que esta transformação seja efetiva, recomenda-se a

integração dos princípios e práticas fundamentais da governação inclusiva nos sistemas

administrativos e na cultura organizacional das universidades.

Palavras-chave

Justiça Social, Acesso Ao Ensino Superior, Governança Inclusiva, Grupos Desfavorecidos,

Política Educacional.

How to cite this article

Neyişci, Nilay (2025). Higher Education from an Inclusive Governance Perspective: Expanding the

Boundaries of Social Justice. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier -

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June

2025, pp. 85-99. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.6.

Article submitted on 14

April 2025 and accepted for publication on 12

may 2025.

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

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HIGHER EDUCATION FROM AN INCLUSIVE GOVERNANCE

PERSPECTIVE: EXPANDING THE BOUNDARIES OF SOCIAL

JUSTICE

NILAY NEYIŞCI

1. Introduction

In the 21st century, global education policies shaped by the ideal of the knowledge

society have positioned higher education as a cornerstone of both social development

and individual competence. However, these global trends have often failed to eliminate

socio-economic inequalities in access to and success within higher education; instead,

they tend to reproduce such disparities. Access to higher education must be understood

not only in terms of university admission but also through indicators such as graduation

rates, utilization of institutional support systems, and academic achievement. From this

perspective, the concept of social justice offers a critical analytical framework.

In Türkiye, the massification of higher education has accelerated notably since the early

2000s, particularly through the expansion of universities and the increase in student

quotas (Erçetin, Akbaşlı & Baysülen, 2020). However, for this quantitative growth to

translate into a more equitable structure, it is essential to address the structural barriers

that impede access for disadvantaged groups—such as low-income individuals, those

residing in rural areas, persons with disabilities, and refugees. The participation of these

groups in higher education should not merely be framed within the principle of equal

opportunity but must also be addressed through a rights-based understanding of social

justice (Furlong & Cartmel, 2009).

The concept of social justice necessitates an expansion of education policies beyond the

sole dimension of access, encompassing fair representation, participatory governance,

equitable distribution of resources, and parity in academic outcomes (Rawls, 1971; Fraser

& Honneth, 2003; Singh, 2011). In this regard, the notion of “inclusive governance”

emphasizes a governance model that prioritizes both the involvement of stakeholders in

decision-making processes and the responsiveness of institutional structures to the

specific needs of disadvantaged groups. Inclusive governance demands that higher

education institutions be assessed not solely based on their educational and research

outputs, but also on their capacity to generate social responsibility and justice (Wise,

Dickinson, Katan & Gallegos, 2020). Social justice entails not only equal opportunities

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 85-99

The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of Transnational

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Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

but also the systematic empowerment of historically marginalized subgroups. Higher

education systems, in this context, may serve as corrective mechanisms that enable the

transformation of these groups both individually and collectively. Fraser’s principle of

“parity of participation” thus compels the establishment of equality mechanisms that

extend beyond resource distribution to include representation and recognition (Fraser,

2009).

As emphasized in the reports of international organizations such as UNESCO, OECD, and

the European Commission, higher education access policies should not be confined to

expanding quotas; rather, they should be integrated with supportive mechanisms such

as scholarship schemes, student support services, psychological counseling, and

mentoring programs (OECD, 2023; UNESCO, 2022). Moreover, governance processes

should be rendered more transparent and participatory through mechanisms such as

student representation, academic advising systems, and social impact assessments

(European Commission, 2021).

Accordingly, the primary aim of this study is to examine the extent to which access

policies based on social justice are structured in line with the principles of inclusive

governance within Turkish higher education system. Drawing on literature and policy

documents, this study seeks to explore the alignment between access policies and the

objectives of social justice, and to identify the institutional reforms required to enhance

such alignment. To this end, the study first outlines a theoretical framework addressing

the concepts of social justice, access, and governance; subsequently, it analyzes access

policies in the Turkish context, presents findings on inclusive governance practices, and

concludes with a set of recommendations.

2. Theoretical Framework

The concepts of social justice and inclusive governance in higher education lie at the

intersection of the disciplines of educational sciences, public administration, and political

science. In this study, the social justice approach is grounded in Rawls’ (1971) theory of

“justice as fairness,” which goes beyond equal opportunities and incorporates affirmative

action measures in favor of disadvantaged groups. Fraser (2009), on the other hand,

conceptualizes social justice as a multidimensional structure that includes not only the

redistribution of resources but also cultural recognition and political participation.

Accordingly, ensuring social justice in higher education policies requires equitable

mechanisms of representation and sensitivity to cultural diversity (Sen, 2010; Wilson-

Strydom, 2011).

Access to education is defined by UNESCO as “the right of every individual to receive

quality education,” and it emphasizes that this right must be guaranteed especially for

disadvantaged groups (UNESCO, 2022). In the context of higher education, access

encompasses not only physical admission but also academic preparation, financial aid,

institutional guidance, and access to post-graduation opportunities (Erçetin, Akbaşlı &

Esen, 2024). Governance, in contrast to traditional hierarchical administration, refers to

multi-stakeholder, participatory, transparent, and accountable decision-making

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

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June 2025, pp. 85-99

The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of Transnational

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Concepción Anguita-Olmedo

processes (Trow, 2010). Inclusive governance is a variant of this broader understanding

that prioritizes social justice, particularly by ensuring the active participation of

disadvantaged groups in the delivery of public services (Rhodes, 1997; Fung, 2006).

Inclusive governance in higher education extends beyond achieving diversity in

governing bodies; it also involves student participation in the design of academic

programs, collaboration with civil society in institutional evaluation processes, and the

implementation of community feedback mechanisms (Marginson, 2016). Based on these

theoretical foundations, this study proceeds from the premise that social justice must be

considered not only in terms of equality but also through the principles of fairness,

recognition, and participation, and it focuses on assessing the transformative capacity of

higher education systems. Inclusive governance should be viewed not only as an ethical

mode of governance but also as a strategic framework for reconstructing institutional

legitimacy. In his model of “participatory governance,” Fung (2006) emphasizes that

legitimacy is not only linked to the effectiveness of governance outcomes but also to the

diversity of actors involved in the process. In this context, governance structures in

higher education should not be limited to internal university stakeholders but must also

integrate external factors such as civil society organizations, local governments, and

students into decision-making processes. Within this framework, three core conceptual

areas—social justice, access, and inclusive governance—emerge as key to evaluating

policies aimed at adjusting higher education systems and reducing social inequalities.

These concepts involve not only the formal recognition of the right to education but also

its equitable, fair, and inclusive realization (Açıkalın &Erçetin, 2018).

Social justice is a multi-layered concept at the heart of debates around equality in

education. Based on Rawls’ theory of “justice as fairness” (1971), social justice

necessitates arrangements that enable individuals—taking into account their inherent or

socially constructed disadvantages—to access equal opportunities. Fraser (2009)

conceptualizes social justice through three dimensions: redistribution (equitable

distribution of economic resources), recognition (visibility and respect for cultural

identities), and participation (inclusion in decision-making processes). In this context,

social justice in higher education entails a comprehensive approach that goes beyond

access to student quotas, encompassing active participation in learning environments,

utilization of support services, and success in graduation.

Although access to higher education is often discussed in terms of inequality at the point

of university admission, it should be understood as a broader process. According to

Brennan and Naidoo (2008), access should be addressed through a “processual equity”

approach that includes preparation, admission, retention, success, and graduation. This

perspective enables the evaluation of not only selection criteria but also pedagogical

practices, financial support systems, and post-graduation opportunities from a justice

standpoint (Erçetin, Akbaşlı & Esen, 2024). Furthermore, access policies should not be

designed solely around individual achievement but also reflect the principles of social

responsibility aimed at addressing structural inequalities (Singh, 2011).

The concept of governance refers to multi-stakeholder, participatory, transparent, and

accountable decision-making processes, in contrast to traditional hierarchical

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management. Inclusive governance in higher education institutions entails operating

based on the principles of multi-stakeholder engagement, participation, transparency,

and accountability throughout decision-making, implementation, and evaluation

processes. UNESCO (2015) defines inclusive governance as the establishment of

institutional mechanisms that ensure the representation of disadvantaged groups. This

approach goes beyond symbolic forms of participation, such as student representation,

and requires structural transformations including representation in academic

committees, data-driven decision-making processes, social impact evaluations, and

horizontal accountability models (Trowler, 2010). Inclusive governance also mandates

that higher education institutions be evaluated not only based on their educational

outputs but also in terms of their contribution to social equity. The tripartite structure of

social justice in higher education—redistribution (scholarships and support services),

recognition (visibility of cultural identity and diversity), and participation (access to

decision-making processes)—necessitates a holistic approach to institutional policy

design (Fraser, 2009; Gewirtz, 2006). For instance, supporting students from rural areas

both economically and academically requires not only financial resources but also

pedagogical advising and psychosocial support systems. Although the expansion of

access to higher education is often presented as an indicator of democratization, its

secondary effects that may deepen socio-economic inequalities should not be overlooked.

For example, the fact that students from lower socio-economic backgrounds tend to

enroll in under-resourced institutions reduces the notion of equal opportunity to a

superficial framework (Marginson, 2011). In this sense, massification can become a

“quantitative illusion” that masks structural inequalities. At the intersection of these three

conceptual domains, higher education policies that prioritize social justice must be

holistically structured—not only through quota planning but also in areas such as

resource allocation, pedagogical support, academic culture, and governance structures.

In the context of Turkey, this theoretical framework provides a functional basis for both

the analysis of existing policies and the normative foundation of proposed

recommendations.

3. Development of Higher Education access policies in Turkey

The formation of access policies to higher education in Türkiye has been shaped by a

centralized structure since the early years of the Republic. The university reform carried

out in 1933 laid the foundations of modern higher education, while access to university

remained limited under an elitist model for many years. During this period, universities

were positioned as institutions catering only to a specific social segment. Following the

establishment of the Council of Higher Education (YÖK) in the post-1980 era, a centrally

planned higher education system was constructed. University entrance examinations,

enrollment quotas, and standardized program structures rendered access to university

both competitive and restrictive. This system particularly hindered participation in higher

education for students from low-income and rural areas (Yücel, 2023; İnan & Demir,

2018; Kandemir, 2014).

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3.1 Massification Process After 2000

Beginning in the 2000s, Turkey adopted massification policies in higher education. A key

strategy in this process was the increase in the number of universities, with the aim of

establishing at least one public university in each province. Universities established

between 2006 and 2012 were a significant component of this goal (YÖK, 2014). The

massification process was further supported by increasing enrollment quotas and

expanding distance education opportunities. However, these developments brought

about several quality-related issues. Notably, deficiencies in academic staff,

infrastructural inadequacies, and imbalances in program quality became apparent,

especially in newly established universities (Bali, Demirbilek, & Demirtas, 2024;

Altunoğlu, 2020).

3.2 Policy Initiatives for Disadvantaged Groups

The situation of disadvantaged groups in accessing higher education constitutes a key

agenda item in Turkish education policy. Efforts have been made to develop specific

access policies for groups such as individuals with low socioeconomic status, students

with disabilities, residents of rural areas, and refugees. Recent strategic documents

published by YÖK emphasize the need to increase sensitivity toward these groups (YÖK,

2023). Accessibility units have been established in universities for students with

disabilities, physical conditions on campuses have been improved, and special

arrangements have been made in examinations. However, systematic data regarding the

institutional effectiveness of these practices and their impact on students’ academic

achievement remains limited. Similarly, economically disadvantaged students are

supported through scholarships and loan systems. Yet, factors such as the transparency,

adequacy, and sustainability of scholarship distribution criteria limit the effectiveness of

these practices (Erçetin & Açıkalın, 2018).

3.3 Access and Integration Challenges of Refugees

In the post-2011 period, as a result of the Syrian crisis, Turkey's higher education system

had to accommodate a significant population of refugee students. YÖK and universities

implemented measures to facilitate the application processes of Syrian students under

temporary protection, including additional quotas, exemption from exams, and

scholarship opportunities. Nonetheless, the integration of refugee students into higher

education involves multi-layered challenges. Language proficiency, psychosocial support

needs, housing, and the sense of belonging are among the primary factors affecting the

success and retention of refugee students (UNHCR, 2020). While many of the policies

developed in this area, long-term perspectives on social integration and institutional

inclusivity have yet to be sufficiently developed (Açıkalın, Erçetin, Potas, Çevik, Neyişci

& Görgülü, 2021; Erçetin & Kubilay, 2019).

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3.4 The Role of Open and Distance Education

Open and distance education systems are among the most significant tools for expanding

access to higher education in Turkey. Universities have enabled millions of students to

obtain degrees through open education. This model offers flexible learning opportunities,

particularly for working individuals, women, and residents of rural areas. However,

factors such as the pedagogical quality of open education systems, the adequacy of

student support services, and graduation rates limit the system's effectiveness (Can,

2020). Moreover, student participation in governance processes and institutional

belonging among open education students remain notably low. This hinders the system’s

integration with broader goals of social justice (Erçetin & Açıkalın, 2024).

3.5 Policy Documents and the Monitoring

Various strategic policies by YÖK and the Ministry of National Education aim to enhance

inclusivity and access in higher education. However, most targets focus on quantitative

indicators, while performance monitoring mechanisms remain insufficient. The

disconnect between policy objectives and implementation limits sustainable progress in

the area of access. Additionally, universities need to develop their own access strategies

at the local level and update them through social feedback mechanisms. Centralized

policies that disregard local contexts prove ineffective in universities, creating only

symbolic access for disadvantaged students (Özdemir, 2018).

3.6 Conceptual Model: A Social Justice-Based Multidimensional Access Approach

In line with the discussions presented above, it is evident that access policies to higher

education in Türkiye must be restructured based on the principles of social justice. Access

based on social justice in higher education requires a holistic approach that goes beyond

merely expanding physical access and instead integrates four key dimensions: structural

expansion, supportive policies, representation and recognition, and inclusive governance.

Structural expansion refers to increasing the number of universities, enhancing

infrastructure, and ensuring their equitable geographical distribution to improve physical

access. Supportive policies aim to reduce economic and psychosocial barriers through

mechanisms such as scholarships, housing, and counseling services. Representation and

recognition involve making disadvantaged groups visible, promoting cultural inclusivity,

and ensuring institutional acknowledgment of diverse identities to strengthen students’

sense of belonging. Inclusive governance emphasizes participatory decision-making, the

development of context-specific strategies, and accountability through the monitoring of

educational outcomes. When these four dimensions are addressed collectively, social

justice can be institutionalized in higher education not merely as a principle of access,

but as a foundation for structural and cultural transformation. This model is constructed

on four main pillars: structural expansion, supportive policies, representation and

recognition, and inclusive governance. Each pillar corresponds to a different dimension

of inequality in access to higher education and collectively reflects the principles of

equality and equity embedded in social justice (Wilson-Strydom, 2011; Fraser, 2009).

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In general, access policies to higher education in Türkiye have been shaped by physical

expansion and quantitative growth, whereas participatory and inclusive governance

models grounded in the principles of social justice have not yet been sufficiently

institutionalized. Access policies must be assessed not only in quantitative terms but also

through a holistic lens encompassing qualitative aspects, representational equity, and

support systems. In this context, it is vital to restructure access policies to higher

education based on the principles of equality, equity, recognition, and representation, as

required by social justice. Integrating the perspective of inclusive governance into policy-

making processes at local, institutional, and national levels will enable the higher

education system to become more just and sustainable.

4. Findings

The concept of social justice in higher education encompasses not only equal access but

also the fair distribution of opportunities for active participation in academic processes

and achievement. The literature reveals a limited number of policy analyses concerning

the integration of socially disadvantaged groups into higher education systems

(Marginson, 2016). This gap highlights the need to evaluate social justice in higher

education not only at the point of entry but also throughout students’ persistence and

graduation phases. Inequities in access often stem from multi-layered and interrelated

socioeconomic, geographic, and cultural factors. Individuals living in rural areas are

disadvantaged in accessing higher education institutions in central urban locations due

to deficiencies in both physical and digital infrastructure. Similarly, students from low-

income families face additional burdens arising from both direct educational expenses

and indirect living costs (OECD, 2023). Furthermore, cultural factors such as ethnic

background, language differences, and migratory history increase the risk of exclusion

and discrimination within the education system.

Targeted policy interventions in some countries have shown potential to reduce these

inequalities. For instance, in Australia, universities are required to conduct detailed

reporting and performance monitoring for social groups defined under the category of

“equity groups” (Gale & Parker, 2013). These mechanisms track not only application and

admission rates but also students' academic achievements, graduation rates, and career

outcomes.

Efforts to broaden access to higher education in Türkiye have primarily focused on

enrollment planning, financial support mechanisms, and open and distance learning

practices. The quota regulations implemented by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK)

aim to reduce regional disparities through additional quotas allocated to universities in

specific geographical areas. These advantages offered to universities in Eastern and

Southeastern Anatolia help make youth from these regions more visible within the

system (YÖK, 2023).

Scholarship and loan systems are critically important for enabling students from low-

income backgrounds to continue their education. The loans and non-repayable grants

provided by the Credit and Dormitories Institution (KYK) function as support mechanisms

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that help students endure economic pressures during their academic journeys (YÖK,

2023). However, the scope and adequacy of this support often fall short of fostering

equality among different social groups. A lack of transparency regarding the application

process, evaluation criteria, and distribution mechanisms can undermine the system’s

credibility. Although open and distance learning practices have the potential to reduce

spatial disadvantages, the pedagogical quality and the impact on student success remain

contested. Institutions have extended access to large populations; however, inequalities

in benefiting from these models persist due to inadequate digital infrastructure and

insufficient individual learning support. In addition, students from lower socioeconomic

backgrounds often face limitations in accessing digital tools, further exacerbating digital

divides (Erçetin &Açıkalın, 2024).

5. Discussion

In Türkiye, higher education policies have long prioritized expanding quantitative access.

This orientation has manifested in the expansion of physical capacities of universities,

the increase in student quotas, and the dissemination of higher education institutions

across various regions. However, this expansion has not been sufficiently supported by

qualitative transformations necessary to ensure equity in student success. It is critically

important not only to enable access for socioeconomically disadvantaged students but

also to provide the structural support necessary for them to succeed throughout their

educational journey. In line with Fraser’s (2009) framework of justice, which

encompasses redistribution, recognition, and representation, current practices in Türkiye

appear to have made partial progress primarily in the domain of redistribution, while

structural deficiencies persist in the realms of recognition and representation.

Students from low-income backgrounds, rural areas, first-generation university

attendees, and ethnic minorities face multiple barriers from entry to graduation within

the higher education system. In order to sustain academic success, these students

require multidimensional support mechanisms that go beyond financial assistance,

encompassing access to learning materials, psychosocial support, and digital literacy

(Wilson-Strydom, 2011). While Türkiye’s scholarship and loan systems generally address

these needs, systematic deficiencies remain in areas such as academic advising, cultural

adaptation, and social integration. Nonetheless, mentoring programs and student

support centers recently introduced in some universities can be regarded as promising

initiatives aimed at promoting equity in success.

Institutional limitations also play a decisive role in the failure to achieve equity in

academic success. Structural disparities between public and foundation (private)

universities in Türkiye further deepen inequalities. Foundation universities, often

endowed with greater financial resources, modern infrastructure, and international

connections, are able to offer a broader range of opportunities to students. However, the

high tuition fees associated with these institutions constitute a significant barrier,

particularly for low-income students. Public universities, on the other hand, offer more

affordable education but often suffer from infrastructure deficiencies, large student-to-

instructor ratios, and insufficient academic counseling, all of which negatively impact

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student success. Moreover, the scholarship and support programs in foundation

universities are typically tied to strict performance criteria, rendering them unsustainable

as long-term support mechanisms for disadvantaged students (Özdemir, 2018).

Therefore, in promoting social justice in higher education, it is essential to consider not

only quantitative expansion across institutions but also qualitative equity in opportunities

among them. The lack of early intervention systems to identify students at risk of failure

can lead to declines in academic performance. Student retention models in the United

Kingdom have demonstrated that student success depends not only on individual effort

but also on institutional responsibility (Singh, 2011). Early warning systems and

counseling networks implemented in some Turkish universities offer positive examples in

this regard, though they still fall short in terms of widespread adoption and sustainability.

Inclusive governance principles are crucial for integrating social justice into institutional

operations. However, despite being included in policy documents, these principles have

not been systematically implemented in practice in Türkiye. The participation of

disadvantaged groups in decision-making processes is a mechanism that not only

enhances representation but also strengthens policy effectiveness. Democratic

governance must go beyond mere representation to ensure that such representation is

meaningfully reflected in decision-making processes. In this context, the strengthening

of student councils, increased student participation in advisory boards, and the promotion

of multi-stakeholder decision-making processes in some universities can be cited as

positive developments (Wise, Dickinson, Katan, & Gallegos, 2020).

Currently, student representation systems and structural supports would enable students

to contribute to decision-making processes in an informed and constructive manner.

Students approaching the issue from a social justice perspective face difficulties in

articulating their needs or influencing policies. However, recent projects carried out by

student communities in collaboration with civil society organizations and academic units

indicate encouraging progress in participatory governance. Institutional support for these

projects can help create an environment conducive to meaningful student participation

in governance processes.

Disability support units must be considered an integral component of inclusive

governance in higher education. There is significant variation among Turkish universities

in terms of the structure, service capacity, and expertise levels of these units. While

some universities have made commendable efforts to improve physical accessibility,

deficiencies remain in areas such as adapting digital materials, training academic staff,

and raising awareness of the academic rights of students with disabilities. In this regard,

the “Barrier-Free University” award program recently initiated by the Council of Higher

Education (YÖK) can be considered an important incentive mechanism to promote

awareness and disseminate best practices. Strategic plans of higher education

institutions in Türkiye tend to frame inclusivity goals through quantitative indicators,

often neglecting qualitative dimensions such as experiential justice, sense of belonging,

and academic atmosphere. For instance, objectives like “increasing the proportion of

disadvantaged students” provide no insight into the quality of these students'

experiences, nor do they include metrics concerning the functionality of support systems

or levels of student satisfaction.

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In conclusion, while the Turkish higher education system has achieved significant

progress in terms of access, systemic transformation is still needed in areas such as

equity in success, inclusive governance, and experiential justice. Inclusive governance

must go beyond representation to institutionalize effective, sustainable, and accountable

participation in decision-making processes. In this regard, social justice should not be

treated merely as a strategic goal but must be embraced as a normative value at the

core of all academic, administrative, and cultural practices within higher education

institutions.

6. Conclusion and Recommendations

Ensuring social justice in higher education should not be confined to expanding physical

access alone; rather, it must also include the systematic strengthening of support

mechanisms and inclusive governance structures that prioritize equity in student success.

In Türkiye, the recent increase in the number of universities and their geographic

distribution across different regions can be seen as a significant development in terms of

access. Spatial equity must be considered in conjunction with socioeconomic, cultural,

and digital inequalities. Higher education institutions should broaden the scope of

institutional support structures and ensure their systematic functionality in alignment

with the goal of realizing social justice. Services such as academic advising, psychosocial

support, career counseling, and learning centers are fundamental to enhancing student

success.

The digitalization process has introduced new dimensions to social justice. Particularly in

the aftermath of COVID-19, the proliferation of remote education practices has rendered

digital inequalities more visible. In this context, it is imperative for higher education

institutions to strengthen their digital infrastructures and develop policies concerning

internet access, device provision, and the production of accessible digital content. The

Council of Higher Education’s efforts in open access resources, digital library systems,

and the institutionalization of distance education are positive steps in this direction.

However, these practices must be disseminated sustainably and inclusively across all

universities. Social assistance policies must be restructured through a social justice lens.

Economic support should go beyond scholarships and encompass comprehensive policies

addressing basic needs such as housing, nutrition, transportation, and healthcare. Multi-

dimensional support models implemented at some universities—such as integrated

student cards providing access to meals, transportation, and stationery—aim to relieve

students from economic pressure and demonstrate that social assistance functions not

merely as financial aid, but also as a mechanism for leveling academic achievement.

Performance monitoring mechanisms are essential for evaluating and improving the

effectiveness of social justice policies. These systems should not be limited to quantitative

data but must also incorporate qualitative analyses and student experiences. Qualitative

data collection tools include student surveys, focus group discussions, case studies, and

ethnographic observations. Tracking access policies with measurable and assessable

indicators is necessary not only for performance management but also for accountability

and strategic planning. The Higher Education Quality Council of Turkey offers a

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framework in this regard; its quality assurance systems encourage the consideration of

social indicators such as inclusiveness, access, and student experience in institutional

performance evaluations. This system allows social justice to be embedded in institutional

structures not just as a vision but as a measurable performance criterion.

In conclusion, achieving social justice in higher education requires not only the expansion

of access opportunities but also the institutional internalization of structural mechanisms

that support student success and inclusive governance practices. The transformative and

lasting impact of this approach can only be realized to the extent that it is reflected in

daily practices, academic culture, and a sense of societal responsibility. Embedding social

justice as the normative foundation of the higher education system produces a public

good that supports not only disadvantaged groups but also the welfare and

democratization process of society as a whole.

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June 2025, pp. 85-99

The European Higher Education Alliances: the Challenges of Transnational

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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NURTURING AND UPBRINGING; THE FORGOTTEN ASPECT IN CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION AT HIGHER EDUCATION

INSTITUTIONS(HEIS)

MIIRO FAROOQ

miirofarooq@gamil.com

Acting Coordinator and Founder, Centre for Teaching Thinking Skills and Wisdom Pedagogy,

Institute of Teacher Education Research, College of Education and External Studies, Makerere

University (Uganda). Dr. Miiro Farooq is an accomplished educational researcher, curriculum

specialist, and advocate for transformative pedagogy in higher education. He holds a PhD in

Educational Management and Leadership from the International Islamic University Malaysia

(IIUM), where his research focused on strategic innovation in educational institutions. He also

earned a Master of Education and a Bachelor of Arts with Education from the Islamic University in

Uganda.Dr. Farooq is the founder and Acting Coordinator of the Centre for Teaching Thinking

Skills and Wisdom Pedagogy at Makerere University, a pioneering initiative that integrates ethical

reasoning, critical thinking, and Islamic pedagogy into mainstream curriculum development and

instructional practices. From 2018 to date, he has collaborated with national and international

institutions—including the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) of Uganda—on

projects aimed at contextualizing wisdom pedagogy as a framework for both human and socio-

economic transformation.His work has led to the institutionalization of thinking skills pedagogy at

Makerere University and informed national teacher education strategies. He serves as a

consultant on curriculum reforms, focusing on integrating the Tawḥedic worldview with

competency-based education. He has authored and co-authored more than 28 peer-reviewed

journal articles and book chapters and regularly presents at academic conferences, workshops,

and policy colloquia.Dr. Farooq’s current research examines the institutionalization of wisdom

pedagogy within higher education institutions to foster innovative behavior, moral consciousness,

and community-responsive education. His work directly engages with internationalization

discourses by proposing culturally grounded and spiritually anchored models of curriculum reform

relevant to both African and global education systems.

GRACE K. BAGUMA

bagumag@gmail.com

Director, National Curriculum Development Centre, NCDC (Uganda). Dr. Grace K. Baguma is a

seasoned curriculum expert and educational leader with extensive experience in national and

regional curriculum development. She holds a Doctorate in Organisational Leadership and

Management from the Commonwealth University in collaboration with the London Graduate

School, and is currently pursuing a PhD in Curriculum Studies at the Open University of Tanzania.

Her academic background also includes a Master of Arts in Public Administration and

Management and a Bachelor of Education from Makerere University, a Diploma in Advanced

Study in Technical Education (D.A.S.T.E) from the University of Manchester, and a Diploma in

Education from the National Teachers College, Kyambogo.Dr. Baguma currently serves as the

Director of the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) in Uganda, where she leads

national education reforms and the implementation of Uganda’s Competency-Based Curriculum

(CBC). She has held several key positions within NCDC, including Deputy Director, Head of

Business and Technical Education, and National Coordinator for Entrepreneurship Skills Education

for secondary schools.Beyond Uganda, she has contributed significantly to international education

development through her work as a curriculum expert supporting the Government of South

Sudan in the design and implementation of basic and secondary education frameworks, including

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), under the auspices of the

Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD).Dr. Baguma’s expertise intersects

curriculum innovation, leadership in education systems, and regional capacity building, making

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101

her a strong voice in advancing educational transformation and the internationalization of

curriculum across Africa. Her work reflects a commitment to building responsive, skill-oriented,

and contextually relevant education systems capable of addressing the evolving demands of

21st-century societies.

Abstract

In today’s volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA) world, humanity is experiencing

complexities with new trends in lifestyles, orientation and thinking. These complexities that

keep on revolving are the result of education without a soul, values and clear dimension of

nurturing and preparing the youths with positive attitude, skills, morally acceptable behavior

for self-identification and management. Today the character and behaviours manifested in

our society like; violence, land grabbing, merciless killings and climate change among others

are a clear indication that nurturing and upbringing has been forgotten in both curriculum

development and implementation. Therefore, there is a great need to refocus on what we

prepare for learning and how it is learnt at all levels of education. Another aspect of humanity

without spirituality, respect for culture and protection of the next generation has been

encountered. This kind of experience that humanity is going through has led to unacceptable

behaviours like homosexuality, corruption, lack of respect and distrust. This paradigm shift in

lifestyle has also led to distortion of religion, societal norms and beliefs, culture of given

societies and historical heritages. The damages caused cannot predict a better future for the

next generation. To avert this situation and regain human civilization with the components of

humanity, spirituality and respect for nature and dignity, there is a need to capture the

component of attitude formation, nurturing with a focus on values and life skills and

upbringing so as to prepare a better generation for the new world order. The purpose of this

paper is to expose the reader to the forgotten aspects in curriculum development and its

implementation, especially the nurturing of attitude, life skills and values.

Keywords

Nurturing, Upbringing, Curriculum development, Curriculum Implementation.

Resumo

No atual contexto global caracterizado por volatilidade, incerteza, complexidade e

ambiguidade (VUCA), a Humanidade confronta-se com desafios crescentes resultantes de

novas tendências nos estilos de vida, orientação e pensamento. Estas complexidades

emergentes revelam-se, em grande medida, como consequência de uma educação desprovida

de dimensão ética, espiritual e axiológica, bem como da ausência de uma formação sólida que

prepare os jovens com atitudes positivas, competências essenciais e comportamentos

moralmente responsáveis, capazes de sustentar a autoidentificação e a gestão pessoal. A

proliferação de fenómenos sociais como a violência, a apropriação ilícita de terras, os

homicídios brutais e as alterações climáticas, entre outros, constituem evidências claras de

que os sistemas educativos contemporâneos têm descurado, tanto no desenho como na

implementação curricular, a integração de uma educação orientada por valores e por uma

formação humanista. Torna-se, por isso, premente reconsiderar não apenas os conteúdos que

integram os programas de ensino, mas também os métodos e as finalidades da aprendizagem

em todos os níveis de educação. Acresce ainda que se tem assistido a um declínio progressivo

da espiritualidade, do respeito pelas culturas e da preocupação com a preservação das

gerações futuras. Esta realidade tem contribuído para o surgimento de condutas consideradas

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102

por diversos sectores da sociedade como eticamente problemáticas, tais como a corrupção

generalizada, o enfraquecimento do respeito interpessoal e a quebra da confiança social.

Paralelamente, tem-se verificado uma distorção de referenciais fundamentais, nomeadamente

a religião, as normas sociais, os valores culturais e o património histórico, comprometendo

gravemente a possibilidade de construir um futuro mais promissor para as próximas gerações.

Neste cenário de transição civilizacional, torna-se imperativo reorientar os sistemas

educativos para que integrem, de forma estruturada e intencional, componentes formativos

centrados na promoção de atitudes construtivas, valores éticos, competências para a vida e

um profundo respeito pela dignidade humana e pela sustentabilidade ambiental. O presente

artigo tem como propósito evidenciar as dimensões negligenciadas no processo de conceção

e implementação curricular, com especial enfoque na educação para os valores, nas

competências pessoais e sociais e na formação integral dos indivíduos, de modo a contribuir

para a preparação de uma geração apta a enfrentar os desafios da nova ordem mundial.

Palavras-chave

Educação, Formação, Desenvolvimento Curricular, Implementação Curricular.

How to cite this article

Farooq, Miiro & Baguma, Grace K. (2025). Nurturing and Upbringing; the Forgotten Aspect in

Curriculum Development and Implementation at Higher Education Institutions(Heis). Janus.net, e-

journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier - Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June 2025, pp. 100-116. DOI

https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.7.

Article submitted on 8 April 2025 and accepted for publication on 6 May 2025.

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Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 100-116

Nurturing and Upbringing; the Forgotten Aspect in Curriculum Development and

Implementation at Higher Education Institutions(Heis)

Miiro Farooq, Grace K. Baguma

103

NURTURING AND UPBRINGING; THE FORGOTTEN ASPECT IN

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION AT HIGHER

EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS(HEIS)

MIIRO FAROOQ

GRACE K. BAGUMA

Introduction

As humanity is embracing cultural diversity, inclusion, and gender equity, the world is

becoming more complex in nature to the extent that the emergence of new world order

plagued with issues of technological advancement, globalization, massification,

commodification, institutional ranking, competition for natural resources, sustainability,

capitalism and extremism(Waller, Lemoine, Mense, Garretson, & Richardson, 2019).

These forces have left man today at the crossroad without a clear solution of how to

nurture and mold a responsible knowledgeable citizen imbued with skills, values and

spirituality for self-development and community transformation. These phenomena

which have never been experienced in human life, have called for diversion of human

efforts and endeavors towards infusing these aspects into education and in every aspect

of human transformation and development. For instance; communicating through social

media is with humanity in all aspects of the human spectrum. While redefining how life

should look like and at the same time continue to exist, the issue of moral decadence

and inhuman behavior is lingering among the different societies of the world Uganda

inclusive. In addition, today Uganda is facing serious complex challenges due to lack of

values and unacceptable attitudes from different kinds of humanity at all levels of human

development. For instance; the society today is facing issues of corruption, trafficking

both drug and human, homosexuality, and abuse of democracy, injustice, land grabbing,

civil wars and extremism (Embry & Sandler, 2012; Miiro, 2017). These tendencies and

many others are a clear indicator of moral erosion and decadence among the people of

different societies, hence posing serious challenges for the existence of the next

generation. Meanwhile, many schools of thought attach this unpleasant situation to the

knowledge without soul and values that has been used in nurturing and upbringing of

different generations in order to propel human civilization. Today many HEIs’ curricula

frameworks have been developed to prepare required human capital that can outcompete

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Implementation at Higher Education Institutions(Heis)

Miiro Farooq, Grace K. Baguma

104

others on the world map in terms of knowledge creation, skills enhancement,

technological advancement and so on(Embry & Sandler, 2012; Goodwin, & Angeles,

2017). But the component of nurturing and upbringing seems to be missing especially

among the youths. For this reason and many others some parts of the world have devoted

their efforts on imbuing nurturing and upbringing into the curriculum so as to prepare a

better generation for the 21

Century. For instance; in Asian countries Malaysia, Japan,

Indonesia among others are using knowledge integration to produce the required holistic

personality even though the issue of values and attitudes formation are still very big

challenges in curriculum development and implementation (Brough, 2007).

These countries have developed several frameworks to support the nurturing and

upbringing of children for example, Malaysia’s Education blueprint emphasizes values,

spirituality and individual well-being, achieved through several pedagogies such

as wisdom and Sejahtera(Aroff, 2014). Similarly, Japan and Indonesia are implementing

Takatssu to improve face to face interaction between students and

teachers(Eskasasnanda, 2020). These strategies highlight key elements that education

stakeholders consider while designing and implementing the curricula.

However, to avert this situation and recall the integration of knowledge with soul, values

and attitude among graduates and the society in general, there is a need to redefine

education as a source of nurturing values and attitudes through curriculum development

and implementation. Thus, what is nurturing and upbringing? What is nurturing values

and attitudes? What is the meaning of curriculum development and implementation?

What is the missing gap in curriculum and its impact on society?. The purpose of this

paper is to expose the reader to Nurturing and Upbringing as the Forgotten Aspect in

Curriculum Development and Implementation.

What is nurturing and upbringing?

The concept Nurturing and upbringing are used interchangeably. Research has shown

that they have an influence on the entire spectrum of human growth, development and

transformation. Recently the concept of nurturing and upbringing has attracted scholarly

attention due to its essence in molding human psychology and behavior. For that reason

and many other researchers have developed different parameters to define its meaning

and relevance to humanity. Nurturing is a concept that requires collective efforts of

different resources from the community with a common goal using diverse ways of

intergenerational mentoring and upbringing of the young (Kuttner, 1997). This statement

implies that to raise a child up to the level of maturity, requires different stakeholders

like parents, teachers and the community at large; to be concerned on how the next

generation should look like so as to push human development, transformation and growth

for both self and the society to another level.

There are several frameworks that have been developed for instance; Embry & Sandler,

(2012) states that nurturing should be integral in nature with an enabling environment

that includes epidemiological evidence. This factor affects pathological development,

Psychological and psychological pathways. This factor strengthens confidence in

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instances of risks and protective factors. Lastly is experimental evidence. This factor acts

as an intervention for prevention of psychological, health problems or behavioral issues

and this results in positive development. Goodwin et al., (2017) state that nurturing in

Los Angeles catered for caring, supportiveness, playfulness, and pleasure helps

individuals to thrive and this was more centered in families. Early & Development,

(2019) states that enable communities and caregivers to ensure children’s good health

and nutrition, protect them from threats, and give them opportunities for early learning

through interactions that are emotionally supportive and responsive.

Habimana, (2024) states that curriculum development and implementation should cater

for physical, emotional, social, moral, and intellectual development of students. Yusoff,

et al.., (2018) in their study done on both primary and secondary school children in

Malaysia state that curriculum should involve caring, collaboration skills, critical, creative

and communication skills through all the subjects taught at these levels. (Gehlbach &

Hough, (2018) state that curriculum should capture elements of self-awareness, self-

management, responsible decision making, social responsibility and relationship

management.

A study by Ab Razak, (2020) highlights the foundational principles of humanistic theories,

emphasizing that human growth and development revolve around aspects: love,

creativity, loneliness and personal growth. These traits form the cornerstone of a well-

balanced personality, and evolve through a well-motivated process of self-discovery and

development. integrating these humanistic concepts into the educational curriculum is

crucial for nurturing individuals who can make to make informed choices based on

values, spirituality, curiosity and conscious awareness (Littlejohn et al.., 2019). This

approach fosters not only academic success but also the holistic development of learners.

However this ideal remains largely unachieved in many educational systems, including

Uganda. Ugandan graduates often exhibit significant gaps in theory and practical

applications necessary for well-rounded personality development. Addressing this

challenge requires a paradigm shift in educational practices, focusing more on a human

centred approach that prioritized personal growth alongside academic achievement.

Even though many scholars suggest different frameworks that curriculum development

and implementation should encapsulate, Uganda’ s education system over the years has

not produced the required humanity with elements of knowledge interwoven with both

hard and soft skills, values, attitudes and spirituality especially among the youths

(Kifuuse, 2024). This is because the government of Uganda has recently embarked on

retooling, nurturing and reshaping youths aspirations and mitigation of violent behavior

amongst them (Tukundane, Minnaert, Zeelen, & Kanyandago, 2015). To avert Uganda’s

education system, there is a need to re-conceptualize curriculum development and

implementation at all levels to nurture learners with a new mindset towards self and

community development.

Similarly, Miiro & Otham, (2018) in their paper talent management practices a trajectory

and ingenuity in higher education institutions; a meta-analysis review of literature

alluded that preparation of a holistic graduate requires a curriculum designed and tailored

with critical thinking, communication, innovation, problem solving, entrepreneurship and

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team work in order to fit in diverse, mobile and non-boundaries, culture and place. When

this kind of curriculum is designed with pre-requisite skills for the survival in the 21

century and after, there is need to ensure that the implementation stage is done by staff

who are talented with skills of being agile, privy and astute in nature with an aim of

addressing today and future generation demands with real life practical solutions.

Unfortunately, Uganda’s education system at different levels of education does not

translate into the frameworks given above. This is because so far the several attempts

done to address curriculum development with required skills for empowering graduates

with necessary skills for survival and community transformation are at lower secondary

school level. But still at the level of curriculum implementation a lot of effort is required

in order to train teachers in empowering learners with competencies and required skills

for socio-economic transformation. This is because most of the teachers who are

implementing the curriculum at lower secondary school level are graduates without

competencies and skills for innovation and holistic personality development. These

teachers are a product of Eurocentric curriculum which emphasized more of the content

and examination grade without competencies and skills. This challenge has been

exacerbated by the current situation especially at HEIs which have not until today

conceptualized their curricula and cause structures to address skills and competencies’

gaps among graduates (Miiro, $ Baguma, 2023).The purpose of this paper is to examine

the forgotten aspect of nurturing and upbringing in curriculum development and

implementation.

Nurturing and Upbringing, goes hand in hand with a saying ”If we change the beginning

of the story, we change the whole story.” It means that all stakeholders in the education

sector should put into consideration that nurturing children with healthy values of life,

skills, attitude and spirituality is a catalyst for their well-being in both physical and mental

health in order to secure sustainable transformation of societies (Early Childhood &

Development, 2018). Thus, nurturing and upbringing is the state of the art designed by

a given society to give a road map based on evidence from policies and intervention

about how children should be prepared to fully participate in community development

and transformation.

To attain human growth and development through the use of curriculum, many countries

have designed different curriculum frameworks for instance; Kenya’s curriculum focuses

on values, theoretical approaches, education goals and principles (BCEF, 2017). Likewise,

in Singapore, the education framework for nurturing and upbringing emphasizes the

importance of character/value formation, social emotional learning skills, and fostering

good behavior towards learning. This has not only helped to prepare learners for lifelong

learning, but it has also influenced learners to have a positive self-identity and

responsible decision-making towards their community, family and country (Ministry of

Education, 2012). However, nurturing discipline has remained one of the most

challenging key issues in the development and implementation of the curriculum. This is

because most of the stakeholders in this aspect seem to leave? the responsibility of

curriculum implementation in the hands of teachers and schools (Ankerson & Pable,

2020; Miiro, 2017, 2022a).

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Nurturing values, spirituality and attitudes is a huge task that involves different

stakeholders. This is because it evolves from parents, to the community both (school

environment and various community settings) with an aim of producing a responsible

and holistic human being. This implies that preparing a responsible citizen is a combined

effort that calls for different stakeholders without which citizens imbued with required

knowledge integrated with spirituality, values and skills may not be achieved. In Uganda

this kind of strategy has been lacking at different levels of education thus causing a

generation without values and skills towards self and community development. Therefore

to avert this situation, there is a need for various education planners at different levels

for example, curriculum developers and implementers to rethink what teaching and

learning should encapsulate in order to produce holistic individuals for socio-economic

transformation of communities. This duty requires collective efforts so as to redefine

what a child/ youth/person must be and tamed in terms of education values, skills and

how education should inculcate him/her to be acceptable to his or her community. This

person should be with human characters, skills and spirituality required for self,

organizational and community transformation.

Today many parts of the world have achieved this milestone of developing learners’

experiences, interests, passion and wonderments through a whole system approach; the

home/parents, the community/community leaders or clan elders, the religious

institutions, civil society organizations, the politicians among others are all in place to

support the growth and development of humanity. This effort is coupled with the support

of talented and skilled educators across all levels of education systems. However, to

regain a child with values and humanistic attitudes and not materialistic in nature,

concerned with society norms and advances is still a challenge especially in Africa. The

spirit of child nurturing and upbringing cannot be attained without involving the

community in its entirety where both parents and teachers and the community play a

role of inculcating attitudes and values at all levels of education.

Discussion

The concept of nurturing requires stakeholders’ involvement into children’s lives to help

them understand the essence of creation and the role of man in the society so as to

develop within them sound reasoning based on moral protection in order to face ethical

realities and provide solutions to the demands of the 21

century. The role of man has

been to protect life, religion, prevention of harm, protection of intellect and protection of

the environment. However, when humanity diverted from the soul cause of existence,

life has become more complicated and full of injustice, murder and abuse of the basic

principles for human survival and existence. This can be explained by the laws that

humanity normally enacts and do not provide any solution to the recurring challenges.

Moreover, the natural laws through which human behavior and moral uprightness are

manifested have been undermined in the protection of human rights hence causing life

without humanism and sincerity (Chowdhury, 2020; Miiro and Siraje, 2018).

The unprecedented time that the world is going through today is because of the forgotten

key issues in curriculum development and implementation whereas nurturing plays a

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significant role in shaping the kind of personality that the world needs. This calls for

creating a challenge towards nurturing and production of responsible youths and people

with morals, skills, self-definition, management, and respect for culture and community

transformation. It is therefore important that curriculum developers and implementers in

countries like Uganda and other African countries focus on nurturing people in order to

retain their culture, norms, systems and structures of developing a person with good

character.

Unfortunately Many African countries, Uganda inclusive have embarked on pursuance of

globalisation, information technology, artificial intelligence, privatization,

commodification, school ranking, increased enrollment without practical strategies of

empowering teachers with necessary skills and improvement of their welfare. Whereas

it is clearly known that teachers are the actual implementers of the curriculum in which

the forgotten aspect of nurturing and upbringing is espoused. To improve nurturing and

upbringing at implementation level, there is a need to address teachers’ challenges in

teaching and learning so as to smoothen the environment and culture of nurturing and

upbringing strategies.

That notwithstanding, There is also need to contextualize how the unprecedented world

forces that affect nurturing and upbringing should be addressed, these forces as

mentioned above have a great impact on the way curriculum is developed and

implemented as shown below.

Globalisation

The concept of globalisation has opened doors for human integration without borders.

This force with ambiguous effects has infiltrated all aspects of human endeavors for

instance; cultural, spirituality, political, economic and education spheres (Anaghara-uzor

& Farooq, 2019). It has made the world one pillage at the expense of collapsing state

boundaries and human natural setup. it has eased business, access to knowledge,

communication, and skills acquisition among others. Through its demands, education has

been shifted from traditional norms to re-align with knowledge economy demands like

internationalization, innovation, invention, focus on competencies and skills

(Machingambi, 2014). Even though globalisation has led to many positive impactful

effects, it has led to production of knowledge without soul, knowledge without a clear

direction of what humanity should be thus causing alteration of cultures, religion and

change of human behavior and abuse of climate etc. It is therefore important that

education system should be shaped to address this knowledge gap that is driving

especially the youth into unruly citizens with skills for self and community socioeconomic

transformation in many parts of the world

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is another challenge facing nurturing and upbringing, it is a

computer science program that is designed to predict human behavior and intelligence

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(Maurya, Puranik, Senthil Kumar, & Subramanian, 2023). This concept kills self-

independence in terms of creativity and formulation of strategies for human development

and transformation(Pedro, F., Subosa, M., Rivas, A., & Valverde, 2019). When

implementers are given a chance to ignore the functionalities of their minds, social

interaction and depend on machines, their intelligence, problem solving skills, critical,

care and proper communication will all be dumped so as to find easy ways of dealing with

challenges temporally with proper diagnosis of the cause, process and the effect of the

decision take to self and entire humanity (Akinwalere & Ivanov, 2022). It is true that

machines are good in facilitating work but humanity especially in the teaching and

learning process should not be replaced by machines because learning calls for caring,

team work, practice and so on. These programs which include Chat GTP and so on should

not be advocated for especially in developing countries because the concept of nurturing

and upbringing will disappear completely in curriculum development and implementation.

Information and communication Technology

Information technology are resources, tools and devices used to create, communicate,

store and dominate information. These tools are used to manage and facilitate access to

knowledge through broadcasting technologies, internet, smart phones, computers. In

education ICT has been adopted to facilitate teaching and learning. It exposes learners

to new information through curriculum design and integration (Salehi & Salehi, 2012). It

is because of ICT that several pedagogies have been improved to ease the work of both

learners and teachers. However, the negative part of ICT is the exposure to wrong

information and knowledge among learners at different levels of education. Therefore the

work of an instructor should be to monitor so that learners are not exposed to information

that does not fit their cognitive abilities and stages of development (Adeyinka Tella, 2009;

Ciroma, 2014). To nurture learners into proper use of ICT requires teachers who are

skilled and well-motivated to understand that teaching is about mentoring and molding

learners to achieve self and community aspirations.

Commodification and Privatization

Offering education to the citizens is a public service that must be fulfilled by the

government. It is a right that every government of a given nation must fund and ensure

that every child in every generation accesses it using taxpayers money(Silbaugh, 2011).

This process requires government officials to mobilize masses to support its agenda by

providing land and payment of taxes. In return, the government constructs schools,

procures facilities and resources required to ensure that the teaching and learning takes

place at all levels of education. The cost benefit analysis is achieved through production

of talented human capital for socio-economic development and transformation of their

communities. With the emergency of privatization, public services were privatized and

has led to exaggeration of costs for the services and neglect of government duties thus

causing inequality among regions, poor service delivery, and poor curriculum

implementation (Ball, 2004; Brancaleone & O’Brien, 2011). The effect of commodification

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and privatization is that humanity has been forgotten especially on social responsibility

at the expense of commoditizing each and every aspect of human endeavors. Without

money nothing can be offered towards human transformation and development. It is

therefore important that stakeholders especially in the field of education pay extra

attention to this aspect if there is still a belief that education is an important aspect

towards human development and civilization.

To address the forces mentioned above and their impact on the curriculum development,

there is a need to capture the issues raised below as an emphasis in curriculum

development and implementation in order to prepare a better future generation.

Attitude and values

These are components that help learners or children to understand the well-being and

strategies of thriving in the present and future aspects of their lives and the generations

to come. These concepts refer to beliefs and principles normally integrated with culture,

spirituality and knowledge that one acquires to influence his or her behaviours, choices,

actions and judgment towards societal, individual and environmental well-being (Miiro,

2017; OECD, 2019). Through these principles and cardinal pillars of human survival, the

African civilization and its niche areas of human development, nurturing and upbringing

were preserved to date even though a lot is planned against it.

As the world is turning valueless due to the emphasis of contradictory cultures and

inhuman behaviours like extremism, homosexuality, civil wars, drug and human

trafficking and the like, there is need to understand that the role of parents and other

stakeholders in instilling behaviours and change of attitude was neglected unknowingly.

This has led to production of citizenry who cannot manage themselves and at the same

time respect others, and the cultural heritages that have been preserved for years. Many

parents have been emphasizing achievement of work related issues, and leaving the

children at the hands of teachers which are also frustrated and fail to pay attention to

learners hence creating a very big gap towards child nurturing and upbringing (Miiro,

2022b). Also, the more challenging situation that many African countries have found

themselves in is the over emphasis on marks and grades neglecting the aspect of

character formation and morals. Many teachers in schools have been overtaken by this

aspect hence not fulfilling the needed aspect on society preservation, protection and

growth.

It is therefore important to note that no community and its leaders, however magnificent

they may be, can survive the waves of the time without strengthening and renewing trust

of its people, developing and protecting core shared values that lead to mutual respect,

fairness, personal, social responsibility, integrity and self-awareness. Through harnessing

values and change of attitude, an inclusive society; with strong moral fiber, sustainable

economics, peaceful in nature with men and women of respect to themselves and the

society will be achieved.

As schools, workplace and other communities become diverse in terms of culture,

ethnicity, and spirituality and linguistic, it is important that emphasis is put on protection

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of values and attitude through nurturing and upbringing so as to attain a society with

interrelatedness in knowledge, culture, attitude and values and indeed character

formation in an individual.

Skills are another variable that nurturing should capture so as to attain a society with an

art of self-development, innovation and invention. Today many parts of the world have

defined the objectives of their education system for instance; Japan is emphasizing moral

education, for Ireland it is personal, social and health education, Singapore character and

citizenship education, Mexico civics and ethics education et cetera. These objectives that

steer the intentions of these countries have both intended and unintended conquests

based on the actions of the curriculum developers and implementers (Andreas, 2021;

Cheong, Hill, & Leong, 2016). It is therefore important that African countries go back to

the drawing board and redefine their education with aims and objectives that do not only

lead to Ubuntu, but also lead to skilling the youths in order to become more relevant to

the society. Today, many African youths cannot challenge the current status of their

community due to the lack of skills, both soft and hard because of the education system

that has been emphasizing more of marks and grades than capacity building in terms of

skills, values and attitudes.

At a time when the most productive persons in society (youths) are of no value today in

terms of transformation and development, we therefore need to get back to the drawing

board and emphasize the aspects being discussed in this paper. It is also important that

education for real life is designed to curtail the surging challenges of human development

so that the youths are helped to compete in the mad race. Through this strategy, social,

emotional, physical, psychological issues and hope will be recovered, behavior will be

protected and intellectualism will exist to achieve a personality geared towards

development of a balanced society. All this cannot be achieved if parents and other

stakeholders do not show high levels of maturity coupled with supervision, sensitivity to

and support for youth needs, and disciplinary efforts so that a required competent child

is not left to the teacher alone to nurture and to the required direction (Brough, 2007;

Kuttner, 1997; Gutman, Brown, & Akerman 2020).

Life skills/Social emotional learning skills

In the event where the graduated youth today has failed to compete favourably towards

self and community transformation, designing an education system that unpacks their

potentials through competence discovery and self-realization is an essential issue that

parents, teachers and other education actors must pay greater attention to. Today, the

biggest number of unemployed youths though educated poses a big challenge and a time

bomb to any part of the world. This is due to the fact that the youth look at leaders and

other key role players in any country’s development as poor planners for their lives and

as people who do not mind about their future and their next generation. This kind of

attitude has brought about clashes among leaders, elders and other people with the

youth. To avert this situation, there is a need to recapture the early methodologies and

intentions that both formal and informal education captured before and reached a

memorable level of community transformation. Through these strategies, issues of

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entrepreneurship and self-development will be achieved and thus cause a positive impact

to the society. However, this cannot be achieved when parents and government

stakeholders especially in the field of education do not do research and understand

community needs and the practical solutions needed to fill up the gaps. In many

countries, especially around Asia, nurturing the youth for self-employment, job creation

and community transformation is the concentration of all education activities. Though

this aspect is still wanting especially in the African societies due to lack of a well-defined

education philosophy (Miiro, 2022b; Raj, 2016)

Integration of spirituality

One of the major challenges that the world is facing is the neglect and misinterpretation

of religion in human life. For that matter, the purpose of creation and provision of service

to humanity has been forgotten and all this is as a result of education without soul and

education based on human laws other than the natural set up of life. Today education

has lost its soul due to lack of touch with realities in the communities and hence produced

graduates without any impact to the society. Many education/curriculum developers and

implementers need to do a continuous inquiry in their work with an aim of understanding

whether they are providing societies with solutions other than creating more anarchy and

selfish behavior. If this is done, philosophy will be resurrected in teaching and learning

thus remembering the purpose of creation. The many challenges that humanity faces

today are due to curriculum/education that does not make sense to the human soul hence

training people who do not mind about the impact of their actions and behaviours towards

the community.

For curriculum developers and implementers, there is a need to cater for the three types

of human soul in order to prepare a sane community. Human bodies are composed of

three souls and these include; a soul prone to evil, the reflective soul and the peaceful

soul. These three types of souls require different approaches so as to nurture a youth

that is more concerned about peace and harmony for others.

The abuse and denial of basic human rights, environmental destruction, the lack of

meaningful future to thousands of generation, drug and human trafficking, civil wars,

land grabbing, merciless killings; all these explain it clearly that the philosophy of

education is not in place hence causing severe threats to the next generation (Randall,

Koetting, & Combs, 2005). For nurturing and upbringing, there is a need to deal with

internal and external facets of human behaviours so that a holistic person is produced to

the world (Tirri, 2009). Through these efforts and strategies, the curriculum will regain

meaning and help to curtail the growing society without values, skills, attitudes and

morals that lead to a sane and civilized society.

Conclusions

With the emerging era where life is losing meaning, there is a need for all education

stakeholders to understand that education should address both the external and internal

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human aspect so as to have value for life and at the same time provide security and

protection for the next generation. This should be done through the use of

intergeneration of values, spirituality skills, with an intention of recalling the lost culture,

norms and beliefs of the youth especially in the African continent Uganda inclusive. It is

also important to note that nurturing and upbringing should not be left in the hands of

teachers when other key stakeholders are not involved.

Recommendation

Accepting cultural diversity and challenges that have mushroomed in our society, is one

of the ways through which curriculum can be revitalized using methodologies that bring

back soul into the education and regain its essence as mentioned above.

The philosophy of education should be manifested in the curriculum, especially in African

countries like Uganda. They should come out explicitly informing the society the essence

of education and its impact to the society. When this aspect is intertwined with

spirituality, values, attitude, and social emotional learning skills, each and every actor in

education will be aware of where the African society is heading to. Thus, nurturing a

society with humanity imbued with skills for self and community transformation.

Implications

When nurturing and upbringing is put as a key ingredient in the development and

implementation of the curriculum, a society with values and well-skilled human capital

will be realized with strong attachment to its cultural heritage, language, self-identity,

community concerns, protection of family, humanity, and civilization. This will be

enhanced in the young generation imbued with key elements like self-identity,

appreciation of diversity, skills, decency, decorum, attitude formation of human

development and transformation. Thus, a generation for self and community

development will be observed at all levels of education and in all aspects of human

growth, and transformation.

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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EXPLORING PLASMA LEADERSHIP IN TURKISH UNIVERSITIES:

A DOCUMENT-BASED ADMINISTRATIVE PERSPECTIVE

HANDAN EGE

handan.ege@hacettepe.edu.tr

Handan Ege is pursuing a doctorate in Educational Administration at the Faculty of Education,

Hacettepe University (Türkiye). She is also an assistant principal at Çayyolu Bahçeşehir Primary

School. Her main research interests include educational management, and leadership styles.

ŞEFIKA ŞULE ERÇETIN

ssule@hacettepe.edu.tr

Şefika Şule Erçetin is a professor in the Department of Educational Administration at the Faculty

of Education, Hacettepe University (Türkiye). She also serves as the Dean of the Faculty of

Education. Her main research interests focus on chaos, complexity leadership and its various

dimensions in educational settings.

Abstract

This research aims to examine the duties of the rector, dean, department heads, and chairs

of main science or main art disciplines (academic sub-units specific to the Turkish system,

such as “ana bilim dalı” and “ana sanat dalı,” typically led by senior faculty within a

department), who are in administrative positions in higher education, according to the

academic organization regulations in universities in Turkey, within the framework of the

plasma leadership concept. As a result of this examination, it is aimed to reveal the similarities

and differences by examining the plasma leadership behaviors expected from people in

managerial positions according to the duties assigned to them in accordance with the

regulation and to contribute to the management process of higher education in Turkey.

Another aim of this study is to contribute to the development of management practices in

higher education in Turkey, to emphasize the importance and functionality of plasma

leadership within the framework of educational management and, accordingly, to look at the

duties of the rector, dean, department head and head of department from more original

perspectives within the scope of plasma leadership. In this research conducted for these

purposes, the document analysis method, one of the qualitative research methods, was used.

Official sources and regulations obtained on behalf of higher education, scientific articles,

theses, journals and documents related to the subject accessed on the internet were used as

data collection tools. The fact that higher education institutions achieve the goals determined

in line with their visions, raise qualified individuals and innovative, self-improving faculty

members who embrace academic values, and transform into higher education institutions

open to development reveals the need for plasma leaders in higher education management.

As a result of the research, it was concluded that the duties of the department heads, and

chairs of main science or main art disciplines, who are in administrative positions in higher

education, according to the academic organization regulations in universities in Turkey, are

related to plasma leadership dimensions, and in this direction, it was concluded that people

in managerial positions should adopt plasma leadership characteristics and exhibit effective

plasma leadership behaviors and this study underscores their necessity and importance.

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Exploring Plasma Leadership in Turkish Universities:a Document-Based

Administrative Perspective)

Handan Ege, Şefika Şule Erçetin

118

Keywords

Educational Management, Higher Education, Management, Plasma Leadership.

Resumo

Esta investigação tem como objetivo analisar as funções desempenhadas pelos Reitores,

Decanos, Diretores de Departamento e Coordenadores das principais disciplinas científicas ou

artísticas (designadas, no contexto do sistema de ensino superior turco, como ana bilim dalı

e ana sanat dalı), enquanto titulares de cargos administrativos no ensino superior, à luz do

conceito de “liderança plasma”. Estas subunidades académicas são habitualmente

coordenadas por docentes seniores dentro dos departamentos universitários. O estudo visa,

por um lado, identificar as semelhanças e diferenças entre as funções atribuídas a cada um

destes cargos pela regulamentação organizacional das universidades na Turquia e, por outro,

examinar os comportamentos de liderança esperados no âmbito da liderança plasma, de modo

a contribuir para a melhoria dos processos de gestão no ensino superior turco.

Adicionalmente, pretende-se promover o reconhecimento da importância e da aplicabilidade

da liderança plasma no contexto da administração educacional, oferecendo uma análise

aprofundada e inovadora das funções mencionadas. Para atingir estes objetivos, recorreu-se

ao método de análise documental, uma abordagem qualitativa que envolveu a recolha e

análise de dados provenientes de fontes oficiais, regulamentos institucionais, artigos

científicos, teses académicas, publicações especializadas e documentos disponíveis online

relacionados com a temática. A crescente necessidade de que as Instituições de Ensino

Superior alcancem os objetivos delineados nas suas visões estratégicas — formando

indivíduos qualificados e promovendo docentes inovadores, com forte adesão aos valores

académicos e empenhados no seu desenvolvimento contínuo — evidencia a urgência da

adoção de modelos de liderança transformacional e adaptativa, como é o caso da liderança

plasma. Esta abordagem visa dotar as instituições de uma cultura organizacional aberta ao

progresso, ao rigor e à excelência. Os resultados obtidos indicam que as funções atribuídas a

Diretores de Departamento e Coordenadores das principais áreas científicas ou artísticas estão

alinhadas com diversas dimensões da liderança plasma. Conclui-se, assim, que os

responsáveis por cargos de gestão no ensino superior devem desenvolver e incorporar

características associadas a este modelo de liderança, adotando comportamentos eficazes e

coerentes com os princípios da liderança plasma. O estudo reforça, por conseguinte, a

relevância deste paradigma no fortalecimento da qualidade da governação universitária e no

desenvolvimento institucional sustentável.

Palavras-chave

Turquia, Gestão Educacional, Ensino Superior, Gestão, Liderança Plasma.

How to cite this article

Ege, Handan & Erçetin, Şefika Şule (2025). Exploring Plasma Leadership in Turkish Universities:

a Document-Based Administrative Perspective. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations.

Thematic Dossier - Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16,

Nº. 1, TD1. June 2025, pp. 117-132. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.8.

Article submitted on 28

March 2025 and accepted for publication on 2 May 2025.

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June 2025, pp. 117-132

Exploring Plasma Leadership in Turkish Universities:a Document-Based

Administrative Perspective)

Handan Ege, Şefika Şule Erçetin

119

EXPLORING PLASMA LEADERSHIP IN TURKISH UNIVERSITIES:

A DOCUMENT-BASED ADMINISTRATIVE PERSPECTIVE

HANDAN EGE

ŞEFİKA ŞULE ERÇETİN

Introduction

Higher education institutions serve as dynamic entities that not only develop qualified

human resources but also contribute to societal progress through research and

community engagement across diverse scientific domains. A fundamental mission of

universities is to deliver specialized academic education, preparing individuals capable of

making substantial contributions to national advancement. According to Karsantık

(2019), ongoing developments in science and technology, alongside globalization and the

rising need for a skilled workforce, have profoundly influenced the structure and function

of higher education, thereby heightening the significance of effective leadership and

governance.

Universities today are charged with responsibilities that extend beyond traditional

research and instruction; they must also facilitate lifelong learning and spearhead rapid

transformations in knowledge and technology (Çetin, 2013). Meeting these complex

demands necessitates strong leadership, as the leadership styles and practices embraced

by university administrators are critical determinants of institutional success on a global

scale (Karsantık, 2019).

The progress of higher education institutions, which are integral to national development,

is closely linked to the efficacy of their governance structures (Karaaslan & Akın, 2019).

Leaders in higher education play a pivotal role in initiating and managing change within

their institutions (Fullan, 1998). Given the inherently innovative and evolving nature of

universities, administrators are expected to be not only responsive to technological

advancements but also proactive in fostering innovation and aligning curricula with

societal needs.

In an increasingly volatile and fast-changing environment, leaders must adopt integrative

approaches that blend influence, creativity, and strategic guidance to drive institutional

success (Erçetin, 2000). In this context, the ability of universities to nurture visionary,

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adaptable academics and to evolve into institutions open to continuous improvement

underscores the critical need for plasma leadership in higher education management.

Plasma leadership, recognized as a novel and impactful leadership model, offers a robust

framework suited to contemporary challenges.

Emerging from the interdisciplinary convergence of physics and management sciences,

plasma leadership was first conceptualized by Erçetin, Açıkalın, and Bülbül (2013) in their

study titled "A Multidimensional Approach to Leadership in Chaotic Environments."

Erçetin (2014) argues that the distinctive characteristics of plasma often regarded as a

fourth state of matter require a reimagining of leadership models, emphasizing that

leadership traits must be shaped by the cultural, societal, and regional dynamics in which

leaders operate.

Leadership and Management Concepts in Universities

Leadership within universities is of paramount importance, as these institutions must not

only deliver high-quality education but also adapt to rapid advancements in technology

and meet the ever-evolving demands of society. While management typically focuses on

operational control and structure, effective leadership in academic environments requires

more than just supervision. It demands vision, emotional intelligence, and the ability to

inspire and motivate individuals toward shared goals (Bozkurt, Ergun, & Sezen, 2008).

According to Erçetin, Potas, and Açıkalın (2013), leaders in chaotic and complex

environments must possess a multidimensional skill set, one that goes beyond traditional

managerial duties, enabling them to navigate uncertainty and guide their institutions

through transformative processes.

As universities continue to face a range of conflicting objectives from academic freedom

to operational efficiency, strong leadership is essential for strategic alignment and long-

term success (Sporn, 1996). Erçetin et al. (2019) underscore that leadership in higher

education must balance autonomy with accountability, guiding institutions through

internal and external pressures. The leadership styles embraced by university

administrators directly influence how institutions respond to societal changes,

technological advancements, and global shifts in knowledge production. This is

particularly evident in the crucial role of rectors, vice rectors, and deans, who are tasked

with shaping both academic strategies and the operational framework that supports them

(Potas, Erçetin, & Açıkalın, 2012).

The capacity to lead within the dynamic academic sector goes beyond the ability to

manage. Erçetin (2001a) highlights the importance of a leader's adaptability in the face

of constant change, advocating for flexible management approaches that encourage

responsiveness. Furthermore, Erçetin (2001b) argues that organizational intelligence is

at the heart of effective leadership, enabling leaders to make informed decisions and

navigate complex organizational dynamics. On the contrary, he warns against

organizational rigidity what he terms "organizational stupidity" (Erçetin, 2004a) which

can severely hinder a leader's effectiveness.

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Moreover, research on school administrators’ perceptions of institutional readiness for

change further emphasizes how leadership can directly influence organizational

transformation. Erçetin and Demirbulak (2002) show that by fostering a culture of

readiness and guiding institutions through change, leaders can significantly impact the

educational environment. The application of organizational intelligence in educational

settings, as discussed by Erçetin (2004b), further underlines the critical role leadership

plays in shaping successful and sustainable academic institutions.

Ultimately, leadership within universities is not just about achieving short-term goals but

about shaping the future of higher education itself. Effective leadership ensures that

universities are not only able to meet the demands of the global knowledge economy but

also remain vital contributors to societal progress. Leaders in higher education must be

able to navigate complex governance structures, foster interdisciplinary collaboration,

and drive technological and academic innovation, ensuring that universities continue to

evolve and fulfill their critical societal roles.

Duties of the Rector

The rector serves as the highest academic and administrative authority within a

university. The duties of the rector are outlined in the 2547 Higher Education Law as

follows:

1. Chair university councils; implement decisions from higher education governing

bodies, review and decide on university council proposals, and ensure smooth

operations across university-affiliated institutions.

2. At the end of each academic year and when necessary, provide the Interuniversity

Board with information regarding the university's academic, educational, research,

and publication activities.

3. Prepare the university’s investment programs, budget, and staffing requirements,

considering the opinions and suggestions of affiliated units, the university

management board, and senate, and submit them to the Higher Education Council.

4. Where necessary, assign or relocate faculty and staff members across the university’s

departments and units.

5. Oversee the general supervision and inspection of all university units and staff at every

level.

6. Carry out other responsibilities delegated by law and regulations.

The rector holds primary responsibility and authority for the rational use and

development of the university’s teaching capacity, ensuring the provision of necessary

social services to students, and taking security measures when required. Additionally,

they oversee the planning and execution of educational, research, and publication

activities in alignment with state development plans and goals. The rector also supervises

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and inspects the academic and administrative activities, ensures proper delegation to

sub-units, and manages their follow-up and result tracking (2547 Higher Education Law).

Duties of the Dean

The dean is the top authority within a university faculty. Their responsibilities, as defined

by the Higher Education Council, include ensuring that faculty operations align with

established regulations and academic standards. The dean is appointed for a three-year

term from a list of three professors, nominated either internally or externally, as

proposed by the rector. Upon the completion of the term, the dean may be reappointed.

Additionally, the dean selects up to two assistant deans from the faculty's academic staff

to aid in managing the faculty. The core duties of the dean, as outlined in the 2547 Higher

Education Law, are:

1. Preside over faculty councils, implement their decisions, and facilitate smooth

coordination among various faculty departments and units.

2. At the conclusion of each academic year, and upon request, provide a report to the

rector concerning the overall performance and operations of the faculty.

3. Communicate the faculty’s budget and staffing needs to the rector, providing

justification for such requests, and submit the finalized budget proposal to the rector's

office after consulting with the faculty's management team.

4. Oversee and monitor the activities and performance of faculty members and units,

ensuring that all operations meet required standards.

5. Carry out any additional tasks assigned by laws, regulations, or higher authorities.

The dean holds ultimate responsibility for ensuring the effective and efficient use of the

faculty’s teaching resources, providing essential student services, maintaining security

when necessary, and overseeing the proper execution of educational, research, and

publication activities. Furthermore, the dean is accountable to the rector for overseeing

the faculty’s operations, ensuring that all activities are properly supervised and outcomes

tracked (2547 Higher Education Law).

Duties of the Department Head

The department head is responsible for overseeing all educational, teaching, and

research activities within a university department. This role involves ensuring the regular

and efficient operation of all departmental functions and optimizing the use of available

resources. The department head represents the department in faculty or school

meetings. The duties of the department head, as specified in the 2547 Higher Education

Law, include:

1. Ensuring the department’s teaching, research, and activities run efficiently, and

making optimal use of resources.

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2. Representing the department in faculty or school councils.

3. Monitoring and supervising the performance of faculty members within the

department.

4. At the end of each academic year, submitting a report to the rector, dean, or school

director outlining the department’s past activities and plans for the upcoming year

(2547 Higher Education Law).

Duties of the Department Chair of Main Science or Main Art~

The Department of Main Science or Main Art is an academic unit within a university

focused on teaching, application, and research. Its establishment or dissolution is decided

by the Higher Education Executive Board. The department chair, appointed by the

teaching staff, carries out the following core responsibilities:

1. Preside over department committees and implement their decisions.

2. Coordinate with the relevant academic department head.

3. Provide recommendations for faculty contract extensions based on departmental

feedback.

4. Participate in meetings and assign tasks to faculty members when necessary.

5. Prepare and align the department's strategic plan with the faculty’s objectives.

6. Distribute course assignments fairly and propose them to the department head.

7. Ensure smooth communication between the department and department head’s

office.

8. Maintain continuity of educational activities.

9. Foster a conducive environment for teaching and research collaboration.

10. Identify and communicate departmental educational needs to the department head.

11. Oversee the preparation and clarity of the department’s curriculum and learning

outcomes.

12. Provide relevant information about the department for the Academic General

Assembly.

13. Organize course registration at the start of each semester.

14. Ensure accurate entry of grades and attendance in the automation system.

15. Prepare and submit the academic activity report to the department head.

16. Inform the department head about faculty position needs.

17. Stay updated on regulatory changes and inform the staff accordingly.

18. Ensure faculty profiles are current in the YÖKSİS database.

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19. Complete additional tasks as assigned by the department head or dean, in

accordance with relevant regulations.

These responsibilities ensure smooth operations, maintaining both academic and

administrative integrity.

Plasma Leadership and the Characteristics of a Plasma Leader

Plasma leadership is an innovative and flexible leadership model that draws on the

physical properties of plasma to understand dynamic relationships and interactions within

organizational contexts. This multidimensional approach emphasizes adaptability,

communication, and systemic awareness, enabling leaders to effectively navigate and

guide organizations through volatile and complex environments. A core characteristic of

plasma leadership is the leader's awareness of the organizational ecosystem and the

intricate interrelations between its components. This awareness empowers leaders to

balance short-term actions with long-term consequences. Moreover, plasma leaders are

adept at integrating various leadership approaches to address the shifting dynamics of

their organizations, making swift and informed decisions.

Plasma leadership underscores the necessity of continuous and dynamic communication

between leaders and team members, responding to the ever-changing demands of the

organizational environment. Leaders do not confine themselves to a single leadership

style; rather, they adopt a flexible, situational approach depending on the needs of the

moment.

The characteristics of plasma leadership, as outlined by Çevik (2021), include:

− Leader-Member Interaction (Plasma Particles Interacting): The continuous, dynamic

relationship between leaders and followers, emphasizing sustained communication

rather than intensity, with occasional interruptions being inevitable but not

disruptive.

− Fair Leadership and Talent Management (Plasma's Neutrality): Reflecting plasma’s

neutrality, leaders are impartial, evaluating employees based on their skills and

abilities, and leveraging diverse talents to align with organizational goals.

− Organizational Intelligence (Plasma's Collective Behavior): Just as plasma particles

interact collectively, leaders cultivate teamwork and cohesion, facilitating a collective

organizational response to environmental demands.

− Swift Action and Response (Chemical Reactions in Plasma): The rapid chemical

reactions in plasma symbolize the need for quick decision-making and response,

allowing leaders to address challenges promptly and effectively.

− Information Management (Heat and Electricity Conductivity in Plasma): Plasma’s

ability to conduct heat and electricity reflects the efficient transfer of information

within an organization. Leaders must ensure smooth communication flows,

optimizing information channels to overcome barriers.

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− Innovation Management (Plasma’s Constant Reorganization): Plasma’s continuous

ionization and restructuring parallel the need for ongoing innovation. Leaders are

responsible for ensuring organizational structures evolve to remain adaptive to

emerging challenges.

− Human Resources Management (Low Energy Emission in Plasma): Despite its high

temperature, plasma’s low particle density reflects a balanced approach to human

resource management, matching individuals’ skills to roles for optimal efficiency.

− Organizational-Environmental Interaction (Plasma’s Response to Magnetic Fields):

Plasma’s sensitivity to magnetic fields mirrors the organization’s need for adaptability

to external environments. Leaders must protect the organization from external

threats, ensuring resilience and responsiveness.

Ultimately, plasma leadership offers a comprehensive and adaptable framework for

leading organizations through complex and rapidly changing environments. By

emphasizing system awareness, communication, and adaptability, this approach equips

leaders to direct the collective energy of the organization toward achieving strategic

goals.

Methodology

This study adopts a qualitative research design and utilizes document analysis to

investigate the roles of academic leaders—rectors, deans, department heads, and chairs

of main science or main art disciplines (i.e., ana bilim dalı and ana sanat dalı)—within

the framework of plasma leadership in the governance of Turkish higher education

institutions.

Data were collected from public universities located in Turkey, such as namely: Ankara

University, Gazi University, Hacettepe University, Middle East Technical University

(METU), Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University.The

document set consisted of strategic plans, academic organizational regulations, faculty

and departmental bylaws, institutional activity reports, official YÖK legislation, and

relevant academic studies, such as theses and peer-reviewed articles. These documents

were chosen because they formally define the duties and responsibilities of academic

leaders, reflect the institutional vision and administrative structure, and provide

normative and practical data on leadership practices.

The selection of documents was based on the following inclusion criteria;

1. Recency; documents published or updated within the last 10 years were

prioritized;

2. Relevance; documents had to be directly related to the organization, governance,

or leadership roles within the university context;

3. Credibility;only official, institutional, or peer-reviewed academic sources were

used;

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4. Accessibility; documents needed to be publicly available or accessible through

university websites or open-access databases.

Data analysis was conducted using content analysis, in which the selected documents

were systematically examined through coding of relevant expressions, categorization of

codes, theme development, and interpretation. The analysis focused on how leadership

roles and expectations outlined in the documents align with the theoretical dimensions

of plasma leadership.

To ensure validity and reliability, triangulation was applied by using multiple document

types from diverse institutions. The coding process was reviewed for consistency, and

findings were cross-checked with the theoretical framework to maintain objectivity and

analytical rigor (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011).

Findings

The findings of this study, based on the analysis of academic organizational regulations

in Turkish universities, reveal the roles of rectors, deans, department heads, and chairs

of academic departments within the framework of plasma leadership. These findings

are outlined below:

Duties of the Rector in Plasma Leadership Context

The rector is the highest administrative authority in universities, overseeing both

academic and non-academic staff. Effective higher education management, crucial for

national development, hinges on the rector's leadership.

− Leader-Member Interaction: Rectors ensure coordination and continuous

communication across university units, embodying the two-way communication

central to plasma leadership.

− Fair Management and Talent Management: Rectors are responsible for equitable task

distribution, resource allocation, and leveraging individual strengths to maximize

human resource effectiveness.

− Organizational Intelligence: Rectors must foster unity among staff, align activities

with the university’s mission, and address challenges to achieve institutional goals.

− Swift Action and Response: Rectors make timely, decisive actions in both routine and

urgent situations, ensuring the university's responsiveness to internal and external

changes.

− Information Management: Plasma leadership requires rectors to facilitate the flow of

vital information, ensuring it aligns with the university's strategic objectives.

− Innovation Management: Rectors drive institutional innovation, adapting university

policies and fostering an environment that encourages creative solutions.

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− Adaptability to Environmental Conditions: Rectors proactively manage external

threats, ensuring the university adapts to societal and governmental shifts while

safeguarding its interests.

Duties of the Dean in Plasma Leadership Context

The Dean is the highest authority within a faculty, responsible for operations and ensuring

compliance with the regulations set by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK). Plasma

leadership, a modern leadership approach, can be applied to analyze the Dean’s duties

across several dimensions:

− Leader-Member Interaction: The Dean must ensure regular coordination and

continuous interaction with faculty units, maintaining effective communication and

collaboration, in line with the “Leader-Member Interaction” dimension of plasma

leadership (Çekmecelioğlu & Ülker, 2014).

− Fair Management, Talent Management, and Human Resources Management: The

Dean must ensure fairness in distributing resources, tasks, and responsibilities,

making impartial decisions in staffing and budgeting, which aligns with the fair

management dimension. Additionally, they must efficiently utilize human resources

and infrastructure, relating to talent and human resources management (Luo, 2009).

− Organizational Intelligence: Plasma leadership requires the Dean to unite faculty

members around common goals and foster collaboration, ensuring efficient use of

faculty resources and promoting a coordinated, intelligent organizational culture

(Çevik, 2021).

− Swift Action and Response: The Dean must make timely and accurate decisions,

especially in critical situations, ensuring the smooth functioning of teaching,

research, and faculty activities (Erçetin, 2004).

− Information Management: Deans must facilitate the sharing and management of

knowledge, ensuring real-time communication and removing barriers to information

flow, in line with the knowledge management dimension (Toytok, 2019).

− Innovation Management: Deans should foster innovation within the faculty, exploring

new methods to enhance performance, supervise faculty units, and introduce new

policies to address evolving challenges (Çelik & Eryılmaz, 2006).

− Adaptability to Environmental Conditions: Deans must adapt to environmental

changes, manage risks, and ensure the faculty’s alignment with national

development goals, demonstrating the adaptability dimension of plasma leadership.

Duties of the Department Head in Plasma Leadership Context

The Department Head is central to the management of academic, teaching, and

administrative activities within the department, ensuring alignment with university

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policies. Their responsibilities can be analyzed through the dimensions of Plasma

Leadership:

− Leader-Member Interaction: The Department Head ensures effective coordination

and communication within the department, fostering continuous engagement and

collaboration with faculty to achieve departmental goals.

− Fair Management and Talent Management: The Department Head ensures equitable

distribution of tasks and responsibilities, making merit-based decisions regarding

faculty duties and aligning them with individual expertise. This aligns with Plasma

Leadership's emphasis on impartial decision-making and talent management.

− Organizational Intelligence: By harnessing collective capabilities, the Department

Head fosters cohesion, ensuring all units within the department work towards

common goals. This includes managing teaching schedules, faculty performance, and

promoting collaboration among faculty.

− Swift Action and Response: The Department Head must make timely, informed

decisions, especially in crises, ensuring rapid implementation and resolution of

academic or administrative issues. This aligns with Plasma Leadership’s emphasis on

responsive leadership.

− Information Management: Effective communication and real-time information

sharing are key responsibilities. The Department Head facilitates smooth information

flow within the department and with external stakeholders, ensuring transparency

and efficiency.

− Innovation Management: The Department Head leads efforts to innovate teaching,

research, and operational processes, coordinating improvements and fostering a

culture of continuous development within the department.

− Environmental Adaptability: The Department Head manages the department's

external relationships, ensuring adaptation to changes in academic, social, and

technological environments. This includes promoting collaborations, quality

assurance, and managing accreditation efforts.

In conclusion, the Department Head’s role, when examined through the Plasma

Leadership framework, encompasses a dynamic and multifaceted approach to effective

department management, innovation, and responsiveness to both internal and external

challenges.

Duties of the Department Chair of Main Science or Main Art in Plasma

Leadership Context

The Department Chair oversees educational and research activities, ensuring smooth

operations within the department in line with university policies. Their role aligns with

several dimensions of plasma leadership:

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− Leader-Member Interaction: The Chair ensures coordination and fosters effective

communication among faculty members. Regular interactions and collaborative efforts

contribute to achieving departmental goals.

− Fair Management, Talent Management, and Human Resources: The Chair ensures fair

distribution of tasks and resources, aligning course assignments with faculty expertise.

Effective talent and human resource management are integral to this process.

− Organizational Intelligence: The Chair unites the department’s members, guiding

them towards common goals, ensuring operational coherence, and promoting

collaboration to sustain essential activities.

− Swift Action and Response: In times of disruption or crisis, the Chair makes quick,

effective decisions to maintain educational continuity and address emerging

challenges.

− Information Management: The Chair is responsible for timely, transparent

communication, ensuring efficient information flow within the department and with

higher administration.

− Innovation Management: The Chair leads initiatives to improve teaching, research,

and administrative processes, fostering a culture of continuous improvement and

innovation within the department.

These responsibilities, rooted in plasma leadership, emphasize dynamic interaction,

fairness, organizational intelligence, responsiveness, and adaptability in leadership.

Discussion and Conclusion

In higher education, leadership plays a pivotal role in shaping both academic success and

institutional efficiency. Plasma leadership, a dynamic model emphasizing adaptability,

flexibility, and systemic awareness, offers a comprehensive framework for managing

academic institutions. Unlike traditional hierarchical models, plasma leadership

integrates key dimensions such as leader-member interaction, fair management,

organizational intelligence, innovation management, and environmental adaptability.

These elements are essential for fostering collaboration, responsiveness, and innovation

across all levels of academic administration, from rectors to department chairs.

The leader-member interaction dimension highlights the importance of continuous

communication and coordination between academic leaders and faculty members,

ensuring that educational and research activities align with the institution’s broader

goals. Fair management and talent management emphasize transparency in decision-

making and equitable distribution of responsibilities, fostering a meritocratic

environment. Organizational intelligence, coupled with innovation management,

enhances the capacity of universities to adapt to changing demands, whether

technological or societal, while promoting efficiency through information sharing and

collective decision-making.

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Plasma leadership underscores the imperative of environmental adaptability, enabling

universities to remain resilient amid external pressures and sustain their competitiveness

within the global academic arena. By adopting this dynamic leadership paradigm,

institutions can foster more integrated, responsive, and sustainable systems. To

maximize the potential of plasma leadership, academic leaders at all levels rectors,

deans, and department chairs must proactively engage in continuous professional

development and cultivate collaborative networks. In today’s higher education landscape,

where unpredictability and complexity are the norm, leadership models that embrace

nonlinearity and transformation are essential. The principles of plasma leadership rooted

in adaptability, fluidity, and responsiveness closely align with the multifaceted and

evolving character of academic institutions. Drawing from their analysis of high school

students’ career interests through the lens of chaos and complexity theory, Erçetin and

Potas (2019) highlight the need for educational leadership to accommodate disorder and

emergent change. In a parallel vein, Açıkalın (2022) emphasizes the strategic significance

of leadership in shaping complex international relations, reinforcing the value of vision

and influence in turbulent environments. Together, these perspectives illustrate how

plasma leadership offers a robust and forward-thinking framework for navigating

academic autonomy, global pressures, and institutional transformation in higher

education.

In conclusion, the implementation of plasma leadership in higher education offers a

transformative approach to management, fostering innovation, equity, and resilience. By

aligning leadership practices with plasma leadership’s core dimensions, universities can

enhance institutional performance and respond effectively to both internal and external

challenges. For long term success, it is crucial that academic leaders adopt plasma

leadership principles, ensuring that higher education institutions remain agile and

relevant in an ever-evolving global landscape.

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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133

GLOBALIZING THE INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL

VESSELIN POPOVSKI

vpopovski@jgu.edu.in

Professor and Vice Dean, Jindal Global Law School, O.P Jindal Global University, India. Research

Professor, University ‘Kliment Ohridski’, Sofia (Bulgaria)

RAJAT SHANDILYA

rshandilya67@gmail.com

Ph.D Research Scholar at Symbiosis Law School NOIDA, Symbiosis International (Deemed to Be)

University, Pune, Maharashtra (India)

Abstract

Globalization has undoubtedly widened the horizons and significantly impacted multiple areas

of Higher Education system across the globe. In India, the globalization of higher education

has brought about remarkable changes, shaping and influencing the overall structure,

delivery, and perception of education holistically. This Research paper while employing the

doctrinal method of research, discusses the multifaceted attributes and dimensions of

globalization with regards to the Indian Higher Education Industry. This paper critically

examines the historical evolution, contemporary trends along with the opportunities and

challenges that globalization poses to the Indian Higher Education Industry. The paper also

highlights the importance of international collaborations and also of the policy framework

around the issue. Conclusively, this paper advances recommendations for harnessing the

modern day globalization to raise the academic standards and also the overall quality of Higher

Education in India.

Keywords

India, Higher Education, Globalization, Policy Framework.

Resumo

A globalização expandiu significativamente os horizontes do ensino superior, produzindo

impactos profundos e duradouros em múltiplas dimensões dos sistemas educativos. Também

no contexto indiano a globalização do ensino superior tem gerado transformações

substanciais, influenciando de forma abrangente a sua estrutura, a oferta formativa e a

perceção social da educação. Este artigo de investigação, desenvolvido com recurso ao

método doutrinário, analisa de forma crítica os atributos e as diversas dimensões que

caracterizam o fenómeno da globalização no setor do ensino superior na Índia. A investigação

contempla uma abordagem histórica, examinando a evolução do sistema, bem como uma

This study is financed by the European Union-NextGenerationEU, through the National Recovery and

Resilience Plan of the Republic of Bulgaria, project No BG-RRP-2.004-0008.

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análise das tendências contemporâneas, das oportunidades emergentes e dos desafios

estruturais que a globalização impõe ao ensino superior indiano. Além disso, o estudo sublinha

a importância das colaborações internacionais e do enquadramento político e legislativo que

regula estas dinâmicas, assumindo estes fatores como determinantes para o fortalecimento

institucional e académico das universidades indianas. Ao concluir, o artigo apresenta um

conjunto de recomendações orientadas para a maximização dos benefícios da globalização no

ensino superior, com o objetivo de elevar os padrões académicos e a qualidade global da

educação superior na Índia, promovendo, simultaneamente, a sua competitividade a nível

internacional.

Palavras-chave

Índia, Ensino Superior, Globalização, Quadro Político.

How to cite this article

Popovski, Vesselin & Shandilya, Rajat (2025). Globalizing the Indian Higher Education: a Critical

Appraisal. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier - Internationalization of

Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June 2025, pp. 133-148. DOI

https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.9.

Article submitted on 10

April 2025 and accepted for publication on 6 May 2025.

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Globalizing the Indian Higher Education: a Critical Appraisal

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GLOBALIZING THE INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION: A CRITICAL

APPRAISAL

VESSELIN POPOVSKI

RAJAT SHANDILYA

1. Introduction

Globalization, generally referred to by being marked by rising interconnectedness and

interdependence between nations, has reshaped higher education. It has affected the

face of higher education significantly in India, where there is immense educational history

combined with an equally fast-developing economy. The inflow of foreign students, the

presence of overseas universities, and the introduction of international standards in

curriculum and pedagogy are some of the expressions of this trend. The

internationalization of Indian higher education is affected by multiple factors ranging from

high-skilled labour to advance infrastructure among others. But, notably, this process is

full of challenges which may range from commercialization of education among with

multiple other factors. This research article makes a specific attempt to present an holistic

analysis of the globalization of higher education in India. Categorically, the paper begins

by presenting a historical background. Then, it subsequently goes on to discuss the

function of global partnerships and ICTs in shaping the future of Indian higher education.

The paper concludes by advancing policy recommendations for harnessing the

advantages of globalization.

2. Historical Evolution of Higher Education in India

The initial history of higher education in India can be traced back to ancient times. The

Nalanda and Takshashila universities, which was established around the 5th century BCE,

were counted among the earliest centers of higher education globally. These institutions

attracted scholars from across Asia and offered a wide range of subjects, including

philosophy, medicine, and astronomy (Altekar, 1944). Transitionally, during the medieval

period, the setting up of madrasas and maktabs by Mughal rulers resulted in the

advancement of higher education in India. These institutions focused on religious studies

but also included subjects such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine (Habib, 2010).

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The advent of the British period in India marked an important turning point in the history

of Indian higher education. It is already established that the Britishers have been

historically credited when it comes to the establishment of universities in Calcutta,

Bombay, and Madras in 1857, modeled over the University of London. These institutions

targeted to produce a class of educated Indians who could assist in the administration of

the colony (Basu, 1974). The colonial period also witnessed the introduction of English

as the medium of instruction, which had a significant impact on Indian education. While

this facilitated access to Western knowledge, it also led to the marginalization of

indigenous languages and knowledge systems (Naik, 1975). After gaining independence

in 1947, India faced challenge of expanding reach to higher education while maintaining.

The government established several universities and colleges, and the University Grants

Commission (UGC) was set up in 1956 to oversee the development of higher education

(University Grants Commission, 1956). The post-independence period also saw the

emergence of specialized institutions such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)

and the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), which played a crucial role in producing

skilled professionals for the growing economy (Agarwal, 2006). The economic

liberalization of 1991 flagged the inception of a new era in Indian higher education. The

liberalization of economy led to the increased demand for skilled professionals, pressing

the government to allow private players to enter the education industry. This period also

saw the emergence of foreign collaborations and the establishment of offshore campuses

by international universities (Tilak, 2008).

3. Current Trends in the Globalization of Higher Education in India

One of the most important moves in the globalization of higher education in India is the

internationalization of the module. There is an increase in adoption of global standards

in curriculum design, pedagogy, and assessment in Indian Universities. This includes the

introduction of interdisciplinary courses, the use of case studies, and the emphasis on

critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Altbach, 2004). The acceptance of

international modules is also seen in the increased popularity of programs such as the

International Baccalaureate (IB) and the Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) in

Indian schools. These programs prepare students for higher education in global

institutions and foster a global outlook (Cambridge International Examinations, 2020).

Mobility of students is an important feature of the globalization of higher education. India

is considered as the one of the largest senders of international students. It has thousands

of Indian students who pursue higher education abroad every year. The United States,

the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia are among the most popular destinations

(UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2020). Simultaneously, India is also turning up as a

place for international students. The initiatives of the Government, i.e., ‘Study in India’

attracts foreign students by offering scholarships, improving the quality of education, and

simplifying procedures related to visa. The presence of international students enriches

the academic environment and promotes cultural exchange (Ministry of Human Resource

Development, 2018). Faculty exchange programs and international collaborations are

important parts of the globalization of higher education. Indian universities are

increasingly partnering with foreign institutions for joint research projects, faculty

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development programs, and student exchange programs (Agarwal, 2009). They also

facilitate the transfer of knowledge and technology, contributing to the overall

development of the Indian higher education system (Sharma, 2012).

The shift by higher education into an increasingly virtual world, a very major step. The

Covid-19 pandemic has universally accepted digital implementations of traditional

learning methods, virtual classrooms and digital resources. Indian universities are

utilizing ICT to improve the quality of education, extend access and globally outreach

(Kumar, 2020). Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and online degree programs of

Indian institutions are gaining popularity both among domestic and international

students. NEP 2020 of the government highlights the importance of digital literacy and

the integration of technology in the education. However the entry of Foreign university

in India is a new and also very big matter. NEP 2020 has given a Faciliry for dearness

universities to start their own campuses in the country, also-options of offering degree

or diploma can also be offered. This change is thought to increase the quality of

undergraduate education through an universal employer of standards and values of

excellent (Kapur, 2010). But, Entry of Foreign University to India also arises issue like

the commercialisation of education, prospective loss of cultural Identity. There is a need

to balance it with the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems (Tilak, 2011).

4. Challenges in the Globalization Of Higher Education In India

While globalization has introduced various benefits to Indian higher education, it has also

increased the problems in quality and accessibility. The rapid expansion of private

institutions has led to concerns about the commercialization of education and the dilution

of academic standards (Agarwal, 2006). Access to quality higher education has remained

a challenge, specifically for students from weaker communities. The high cost of

education, lack of infrastructure, and inadequate faculty are some of the barriers that

need to be addressed (Tilak, 2008). There are many issues for India related to brain

drain, or the emigration of highly skilled professionals. Many Indian students who pursue

higher education abroad choose to stay in their host countries, leading to a loss of talent

and expertise (Kapur, 2010). While the government has commenced initiatives such as

the "Global Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN)" to engage foreign faculty and

researchers, still a lot has to be done to maintain talent in the country (Ministry of Human

Resource Development, 2015). The globalization of higher education has raised issues

related to the loss of cultural identity. The adoption of Western curricula and teaching

methods may lead to the neglect of indigenous knowledge systems and languages

(Nussbaum, 2010). It is important to promote a stable view that integrates global best

practices with the protection of cultural heritage.

It is significant that NEP 2020 expects multilingualism and of indigenous learning systems

integration in the models properly (National Education Policy, 2020). The regime that

oversees the Indian higher education are normally criticized for being overly rigid and

archaic. The existence of the multitude of regulatory bodies like UGC, AICTE and NCTE

has created the confusions and the hinderance for this sector (Agarwal, 2009). The NEP

2020 provides for establishment of HECI in place of regulatory mechanism, with

regulatory authorities. However the implementation of this reform is still an issue

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(National Education Policy, 2020). The digitalisation of the higher education sector has

thrown light on what is now known as as the digital divide in India. Urban centres have

the strength of fast internet and digital resources but rural areas lack resources which

are required. Digital India program by the government attempts to bridge this gap by

enhancing internet connectivity and improving the digital literacy. Quite a bit more

remains to have accomplished so many students access to the digital learning

opportunities (Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, 2015).

5. Opportunities in the Globalization of Higher Education in India

There is a chance to enhance the position of higher education in India, the globalization

provides. The acceptance of global standards, incorporation of across national curricula

and setup of foreign universities can bring out the standard of Indian institutions

(Altbach, 2004). Unions with overseas universities could allow the movement of

knowledge and technology, which can improve teaching and research. The inclusion of

international students and staff can also enhance the learning and also raise cross-

cultural content understanding (Sharma, 2012). Through globalisation, research and

innovative work in Indian higher education has become better. International

collaborations can give the Indian researchers access to funding, resources, and

expertise which can facilitate them conducting advanced research both at national and

at international levels respectively (Agarwal 2009). The NEP 2020 conceives importance

of research and innovation and proposes creation of a National Research Foundation

(NRF) to elevate research across various disciplines. Key to this goal can be played higher

education through abstraction the National Education Policy, later it 2020.

Globalization can improve the employment opportunities of Indian graduates by

providing them with the skills and knowledge that are significant in a globalized economy.

Exposure to international curricula, internships, and exchange programs can prepare

students for careers in multinational corporations and global organizations (Tilak, 2008).

The NEP 2020 promotes the importance of skill development and offers the integration

of vocational education into the higher education system. Employability of Indian

graduates can be further improved (National Education Policy, 2020). The globalization

of higher education can improve cultural exchange and diplomacy. The presence of

international students and faculty in Indian institutions can foster cross-cultural

understanding and build bridges between nations (Nussbaum, 2010). The government's

programme, i.e., "Study in India" focuses on the position of India as a global hub for

education and improve its soft power. By involving students from various backgrounds,

India can advance its culture, values, and traditions at the global level (Ministry of Human

Resource Development, 2018). Foreign investment, jobs, and revenue can be improved

by globalization of higher education. The establishment of foreign universities and the

influx of international students can boost the local economy and create opportunities for

entrepreneurship and innovation (Kapur, 2010). The NEP 2020 intends India as a global

knowledge superpower and promotes the significance of higher education in attaining

this aim. By strengthening the benefits of globalization, India can hold its position in

higher education and help in global knowledge production (National Education Policy,

2020).

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6. Role of International Collaborations in the Globalization of Higher

Education

Students from Indian and foreign institutions acquire joint degree programs and these

programs are becoming popular. They provide students with a global perspective and

enhance their employability (Altbach, 2004). Indian universities are collaborating with

foreign institutions to propose joint degree programs in different disciplines, including

engineering, management, and humanities. These programs often include a period of

study abroad, providing students with international exposure (Sharma, 2012). Research

alliances between Indian and foreign universities are important for advancing knowledge

and in dealing with global problems. These collaborations facilitate the exchange of ideas,

resources, and expertise, leading to breakthroughs in science, technology, and social

sciences (Agarwal, 2009).

"Global Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN)", was initially various Government

focused on collaborating with international faculty and researchers to the institutions of

India for short-term teaching & research assignments. This initiative led to numerous

successful collaborations, and there has been better research capabilities from Indian

universities (Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2015). Faculty development

program is necessary for upgradation of status of teaching and research India in the field

of higher education. Collaborations conducted by international institutions offer

opportunities to Indian faculty for professional development, exposure to best practices

worldwide and enables access to contemporary research (Sharma, 2012). Several

number of Indian universities are establishing collaborations with the international

institutions for exchange of faculties, organizer of workshops & training. These programs

an Indian faculty remains in touch with the latest knowledge in their field and enhance

their teaching and research skills (Agarwal, 2009). Student exchange programs are

crucial for the universalization of higher education. These programs allow students study

abroad, learn the international influence, develop the cross-cultural capacity (Altbach,

2004). Indian universities are promoting exchange programs of students with foreign

universities. These programs usually include internships, research projects, and cultural

activities, and offer the students a comprehensive learning (Sharma, 2012). International

accreditation is also one ofthe aspects of the globalization of education ofhigher

education. Accreditation by prestigious International bodies, boostsicultural and

reputation of Indian institutions as well as assures that they meet global standards

(Agarwal, 2009). Several of India’s universities and colleges are looking to gain

accreditation from international organizations, for instance Association to Advance

Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) and Accreditation Board for Engineering and

Technology (ABET). This has facilitated Indian institutions to have a global recognition

and the world at the door of our institutions (Altbach, 2004).

7. Impact of Digital Technologies on the Globalization of Higher

Education

Online learning platforms have made available quality education in the area of higher

education to the students all over world. Indian universities effectively utilize these

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platforms to provide the extra curriculum programs online like certifications and MOOCs

(Kumar, 2020). Platforms such as Coursera, edX, and SWAYAM are taking courses from

India’s, as well as international’s, top institutions and making quality education accessible

to broader public. The NEP 2020 emphasizes the importance of the online learning and

establishes provisions for the setting up of National Educational Technology Forum

(NETF) for ensuring the use of technology for education(National Education Policy, 2020).

Virtual classrooms are a feature of higher education in these days of COVID-19. The

classrooms allow for real time interaction between teacher and student, wherever he is

in the world (Kumar, 2020). Indian universities are embracing virtual classroom

technologies to enhance teaching and learning experience to the worldwide public.

Elearning using virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) also is seeing growth in

the market, delivers students with experiences of-immersive learning(National Education

Policy, 2020). Digital instruments such as e-books, online publications, and assets, can

have changed just how that students acquire and καν ?>"/> Indian universities are

demonstrating interest in digital libraries and online facilities in order to promulgate

teaching and research (Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, 2015). The

government's National Digital Library of India (NDLI) offers access to collection of huge

range of digitized resources like articles, books, and research papers. Provided the

accessibility to quality education material literacy to the faculty’s and students is now far

easier this permissible (National Digital Library of India, 2020). Data analytics and

Artificial intelligence (AI) in higher education are getting the same amount of attention.

These technologies are being used for personalization of learning, improved student

results and increased Institutional efficiency (Kumar, 2020). Indigenous universities are

resorting to data analytics and AI to discover scholar operating, forecast trends, take

knowledgeable selections. AI powered chatbots, virtual assistants are becoming more

common, offer active support and mentoring services to the students (National Education

Policy, 2020). The increasing of digital transformation in higher education have been

added a lot of cybersecurity and privacy concerns. Indian universities need to assure that

digital assets of their university are secure and student's data is protected (Ministry of

Electronics and Information Technology, 2015). The government's Digital India

programme has initiatives to enhance the security and confidentiality of data. Indian

universities ought to adapt to the best practices in cyber security and data protection

regulations to protect their digital assets (National Education Policy, 2020).

8. Policy Frameworks and Initiatives

The NEP 2020 is a very vital policy that seeks to transform the Indian education system.

The policy says for the importance of globalization, for the strategy to enhance the status

and level of accessibility of higher education (National Education Policy, 2020). The single

regulatory body for higher education, the Higher Education Commission of India (HECI),

improved international partnership, technological integration into education are the

major initiatives envisaged in the NEP 2020. The policy, on the other hand, calls for the

method of research and innovation and it facilitates building institution of a National

Research Foundation (NFR) (National Education Policy, 2020). The "Study in India"

initiative aims at brand positioning of India as Global Education Hub and include

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international students. The program is providing scholarships, promotes education status

and facilitating visa process to make India a destination for foreign students (Ministry of

Human Resource Development, 2018). Government too has introduced the "Global

Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN)"to bring international faculty member and

researchers on Indian institutions. Some of these programs involve promotion of global

perception of Indian higher education and facilitate cultural exchange (Ministry of Human

Resource Development, 2015). Digital India ensures transformation of India into digital

empowered society and a knowledge. The program also has provisions for promotion of

internet access, digital literacy, and bringing of technology in education (Ministry of

Electronics and Information Technology, 2015). That the establishment of National

Educational Technology Forum(NEPF) under the NEP 2020 is matter of principal part of

Digital India Programme. The forum will result in the use of technology in education and

platform for all stakeholders to share best practices and integrate on digital initiatives

(National Education Policy of India 2020). The Indian government has inked many

agreements with foreign countries to make international collaborations in the higher

education sector. These agreements aid in student and faculty exchange, collaborative

research projects and establishment of offshore campuses (Ministry of External Affairs,

2019). Government’s "Global Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN)" and "Scheme for

Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration (SPARC)" are the initiatives of the

government to ensure that they encourage international collaborations. These programs

bundle money and resources for collaborativeed research projects, Faculty development

programs, and Student exchange programs (Ministry of Human Resource Development,

2015). The NEP 2020 gives importance to skill development and the holistic education

system in the higher education commencement. The policy outlines the incorporation of

holistic education within the higher education system and setting up multidisciplinary

education and research universities (MERUs) (National Education Policy 2020). The

government's "Skill India" initiative provides skill training to millions of Indians and

enhance their employability. The integrative approach towards vocational or skills and

life education into higher education, will prepare students to meet the needs of the global

economy (Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015).

9. The Impact of Globalization on Research and Innovation

Globalization has a huge role to influence on research and innovation of Indian higher

education system. International collaborations become increasingly essential in focusing

on the issue of knowledge and discovering worldwide challenges. Indian institutions are

partnering with the foreign universities for collaboration in joint research projects,

resources sharing and sources of funding. Such as the Indian Institute of Science (IISc)

have partnered with universities in the United States and Europe in their cutting-edge

research on fields like renewable energy, biotechnology and artificial intelligence

(Sharma, 2012). These partnerships provide not just a researched based asset to Indian

institutions but also help improve the global body of knowledge.

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The "Global Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN)" launched by the government is one

more example of how globlization is making the research and innovation in India. This

Programme is aimed at drawing in the foreign faculty and researchers at Indian

Institutions for short term teaching and research assignments. GIAN has enabled various

collaborations in the past, leading to publishing high-impact research papers and coming

with growth of new answers to significant issues globally (Ministry of Human Resource

Development, 2015). NRF (National Research Foundation) that will create a common

platform for research across disciplines and fund latest research projects – this is also

proposed in the NEP 2020. The NRF has taken an approach of enabling a culture of

research and innovation within Indian higher education, particularly towards issues at

the national and global level (National Education Policy, 2020).

However there where a lot of problems that had to be looked at. Having first those

innovations and growth. A lot is the shortage of sufficient financing for the study and

innovation. While collaborating with the international partners offers resources, Indian

institutions have traditionally found difficulty to protect enough funding resources to their

research. Moreover, the administrative obstacles that one has to trudge through for

getting research grants and approvals is also one of the major hurdles (Agarwal, 2009).

To address these challenges, the NEP 2020 ensured the need of the overhaul of the

research funding system and the plugging in the gaps for research and innovation . This

includes creation of single regulatory authority ; the Higher Education Commission of

India (HECI), which will taxonomic arrangement the allocation of research grants and

guarantee that it is being taken advantage of effectively (National Education Policy,

2020).

10. The Role of Digital Technologies in Globalizing Higher Education

Digital upheaval of higher education is the driving force for Indianisation of globalization.

The COVID-19 pandemic has spurred the acceptance of online learning sites, online

classrooms, digital tools, and online resources to make the education more available and

convenient for people. Indian universities are using digital technologies to improve the

quality of education, increase access, and get a global reach. For example, platforms

such as SWAYAM, Coursera, and edX provide a large number of online courses and

degree programs from major Indian and international institutions who are building the

quality education accessible for the students all over the world (Kumar, 2020).

The NEP 2020 makes it inevitable to digital literacy and the co-relation of technology with

education. The policy suggests establishment of a National Educational Technology

Forum (NETF) in order to integrate the use of the school using technology and to provide

a cover for participants to call for best practices and coordinate digital Initiatives

(National Education Policy, 2020). Moreover, the government's Digital India programme

helps in making India a digitally powerful society and knowledge economy through

boosting internet connectivity, making digital literacy, and using technology in education

(Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, 2015).

But also with the changes towards a digital higher education questions arise which are

related to the digital divide. Though urban areas have all the prerequisites necessary like

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high speed Internet and all the digital resources, rural areas are usually an exception to

it. The vast difference between access to digital tools can widen the gaps of inequalities

in education(Kumar, 20220. To address this issue, the NEP 2020 ensures the necessity

of the digital divide by increasing internet facilities in the rural areas, besides promoting

digital learning among students and faculty. The education policy also is beneficial to

education of digital assets and infrastructure of educational institutions, including the

establishment of digital libraries and online facilities (National Education Policy, 2020).

11. The Role of International Students in Globalizing Higher Education

The presence of international students is a primary concern of the globalization of higher

education. India is emerging as a destination for international students, because of the

initiatives such as "Study in India" program, which ensures to help foreign students by

proposing scholarships, enhancing the status of education, and analyzing visa procedures

(Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2018). The presence of international

students enriches the academic environment by promoting cultural exchange and

fostering cross-cultural understanding. Additionally, international students contribute to

the local economy by paying tuition fees and living expenses, which can benefit the host

institutions and the surrounding communities (Altbach & Knight, 2007).

However, attracting international students to India is not without challenges. One of the

problems is the perception of Indian higher education among international students.

While India has various prestigious institutions, such as the IITs and IIMs, the overall

quality of higher education in India is often perceived as inconsistent. Additionally, issues

such as inadequate infrastructure, lack of accommodation, and safety concerns can deter

international students from choosing India as a study destination (Sharma, 2012). To

look into the problems, the NEP 2020 ensures the need for improving the quality of higher

education in India and making a welcoming environment for international students. This

includes setting up of international student offices, the provision of accommodation and

assistance services, and ensuring India's cultural heritage and traditions (National

Education Policy, 2020).

12. The Role of Faculty in Globalizing Higher Education

Staff has a big role in the globalisation of higher education. International integration will

enable Indian faculty the chance to have their career flourished, exposure to international

best practices and expansion to cutting edge of research. Many Indian universities have

established linkages with foreign institutions for faculty exchange programme, workshops

and training. One reason for this is that the programs assist Indian faculty in adhering to

the most recent technology of their areas so as to boost their participation in training

and research (Agarwal, 2009).

In fact, the Indian colleges can also get its status enhanced by international faculty

posted to the colleges of India. For instance, the "Global Initiative of Academic Networks

(GIAN)" involved instituting foreign faculty and researchers in Indian institutes for short

duration of teaching and research, culminating in slew of new models and research

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projects (Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2015). Because, retaining and

engaging the foreign faculty can be difficult for reasons such as low level of

compensation, research, logistic facilities and bureaucratic hurdles. To study them, these

challenges the NEP 2020 lays down the requirement for creating an environment for

international faculty amongst others, the arrangement of competitive salary, research

grant and assistace services (National Education Policy, 2020).

13. The Role of Policy Frameworks in Globalizing Higher Education

Policy framework, take an important place in allowing the globalization of higher

education in India. The NEP 2020 is an important policy, that to transform the Indian

education system promoting internationalize, conducting research and innovation and

applications of technology in the education. The policy achieves this by ensuring that the

provision for developing a regulatory framework that enables the globalisation of higher

education including establishment of a regulatory body, Higher Education Commission of

India (HECI), which having in its purview accords for the growth of higher education and

ensures that higher education gets built to global standards (National Education Policy,

2020).

In addition, the NEP 2020 provides a range of possibilities for unlocking international

connections, including creation of National Research Foundation (NRF) and Global

Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN). These enable foreign faculty and researchers to

Indian institutions, promote joint research projects, and outcomes in the

internationalization of the curriculum (National Education Policy, 2020). However, their

successful implementation relies heavily on individual contributions of the government,

educational systems, industry, and civil society. This involves a necessary element of

proper funding, the construction of infrastructure, and favourable environment for

research and innovation (Agarwal, 2009).

14. The Role of Industry in Globalizing Higher Education

Industry is also used in the globalisation of higher education by giving students with an

opportunity either through internships, industry projects or placements for the future.

Not so long ago, many Indian universities has partnership with multinational corporation

and global organization to deliver the industry courses and training programs. For

instance, the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) has partnered with, among others,

global corporations like McKinsey, Google & Microsoft to offer special management &

technology (Tilak, 2008) courses. These partnerships significantly enhance the

employability of Indian graduates but also provide them with possibilities to international

great practices and industry situations.

Also, industry partnerships can lead to new module development and research activities.

Eventually, Indian Institute of Technology IIT Bombay has linked up with the Indian

software giant Tata Consaltcy Services TCS to surrogate a course in the counterfeiting

intelligent as well as automaton acquaintance, which is aligned with industry necessities

(Sharma, Tutor, 2012). But industry ties also created questions about the

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commercialization of education and the possible impact of private money on academic

freedom. To deal with these challenges, NEP 2020 stresses the need of struct in strike of

industry need as well as by academic uprightness (National Education Policy, 2020).

15. Recommendations

Taking about the goodness of the globalization should be the exploration of the regulatory

inside the borders of higher education in India. The fact that, as envisaged by the NEP

2020, there will be a single regulatory body, the Higher Education Commission of India

(HECI) is a move in the right direction (National Education Policy, 2020). The regulatory

body should mainly focus on quality, accountability and facilitating international

collaborations. It should also leverage concerns like the commercialisation of education

and the pro-brications to be made for cultural identity (National Education Policy, 2020).

Quality and accessibility of Indian higher education should be improved. It includes the

task of better infrastructure, better faculty strength and all students to bring quality

education (Agarwal, 2009). The government should provide financial support to the

entities catering marginalized communities and education with inclusivity. The MERUs

(Multidisciplinary Education & Research Universities) as envisioned by the NEP (2020) is

a step in the right direction to elevate the stature of the higher education (National

Education Policy, 2020). Research & innovation should place position in India as global

knowledge super power. The creation of the National Research Foundation (NRF) under

the NEP 2020 is a new concept (National Education Policy, 2020). Government should

have to give grants and help for research Projects especially to those of National

importance. International country partnerships must be fostered to allow the exchange

of information and technology (Agarwal, 2009). Digital technologies should be used to

up-grade quality and accessibility of higher education. The government should be

investing in digital facilities, promoting digital ability and encouraging growth digital

education facilities (Kumar, 2020). The formation of National Educational Technology

Forum (NETF) under NEP 2020 is in line with application of technology in education. The

forum should focus on evolution of good so-called best practices, educate the process,

assist integration in among players (National Education Policy, 2020). Exchange and

diplomacy through education should be further strengthened. The "Study in India"

programme, should attract a larger international students and position India as global

education hub (Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2018). Indian universities

must see the cross-cultural analysis and keep the Indian knowledge systems in picture

of the module. The government also needs to improve learning of Indian languages and

culture among foreign students (National Education Policy, 2020). To address problem of

brain drain government should create an environment for Researchs and innovations.

This involves supporting by means of fundraising, infrastructure and career prospects for

researchers and professionals, Kapur (2010).

The government should also ensure entrepreneurship and innovation to retain talent

within the country. Initiative programmes including the "Startup India" and "Make in

India" campaigns are important aspects in the right direction (Ministry of Skill

Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015). Efforts should be made to improve the

employability of Indian graduates by providing them with the skills and knowledge that

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are important in a globalized economy. The collaboration of holistic view of education

into the higher education system, as offered by the NEP 2020, is a positive step (National

Education Policy, 2020). Indian universities should aim towards skill development,

internships, and industry partnerships to make students for the career advancements.

The government should also enhance lifelong learning and give enhancements for

upgrading the skills (Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015).

16. Conclusion

Globalization of higher education in India is a strict and complex phenomenon that holds

the charm and the challenge. As it possesses the potential to change the position and

availability of education and to elevate the research and the new things and to place

India at the globe and knowledge super power it has also brought the issues of status of

access and the identity cultural. To respond to the advantages of globalization, we should

analyze the regulatory environment, to step up the status and accessibility of education,

to enhance research and innovation and to facilitate digital technologies, help cultural

exchange and diplomacy. By tackling these obstacles and capitalising on the

opportunities, India can be best placed as a model for higher education and acquire

knowledge production on a global basis. The NEP 2020 helps to formulate a holistic

framework to transform the Indian education sector and get the benefits of globalization.

But the policy requires an all-round thrust of the Government, educational institutions,

industry and civil society organs. So, it can be concluded that the globalization of higher

education in India is a very tough and multidimensional process which requires a

balanced point. The formulation of higher education system by combining global best

practices and safeguarding of cultural heritage, India can achieve globally competitive

education with rich educational traditions. Higher education in India gives both prospects

and challenges. While it can improve the status and accessibility of education, it can

enhance research and innovation, and position India as a global knowledge superpower,

it also helps understand issues about quality, accessibility, and cultural identity. To

address the benefits of globalization, it is important to look into the the regulatory

framework, improve the quality and accessibility of education, ensure research and

innovation, harness digital technologies, and help cultural exchange and diplomacy. By

looking into these problems and seizing the opportunities, India can keep itself as a leader

in higher education and provide towards global knowledge production. The NEP 2020

gives a holistic framework for changing the Indian education system and addressing the

benefits of globalization. However, the successful functioning of the policy needs the

integrative efforts of the government, educational institutions, industry, and civil society.

Conclusively, higher education in India is a complex and multifaceted process that needs

a balanced approach through globalization. By collaborating global best practices and

preservation of cultural heritage, India can make higher education system both globally

competitive and rooted in its rich educational institutions.

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Nussbaum, M. C. (2010). Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities.

Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Sharma, Y. (2012). Internationalization of Higher Education: A Case Study of India. New

Delhi: Cambridge University Press.

Tilak, J. B. G. (2008). Higher Education in India: Emerging Issues and Challenges. New

Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.

OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

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Experiences and Challenges

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INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND PUBLIC POLICY:

ADVANCES AND SETBACKS IN THE STRATEGIC ACTIONS FOR THE

INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION OF BRAZILIAN UNIVERSITIES

JOSÉ ALBERTO MIRANDA

jose.miranda@unilasalle.edu.br

He holds a degree in Law from the University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos (1996), a Specialization in

Integration and Mercosur from UFRGS (1999), a Master's degree in International Relations from

the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2004) and a PhD in International Strategic Studies

from UFRGS (2012). He is currently Advisor for Interinstitutional and International Affairs,

Deputy Coordinator of the Postgraduate Program in Law and a member of the teaching staff of

the International Relations Course at La Salle University (Brazil). He is also a distinguished

visiting professor at the Catholic University of Trujillo in Peru. He has experience in International

Relations and International Law, with an emphasis on International Society, International

Cooperation, Global Governance, Regional Integration, Foreign Policy and International

Education. He also coordinates the La Salle University support for immigrants extension project.

JACKSON LUIZ NUNES BENTES

jackson.bentes@lasalle.org.br

Postdoctoral student in International Relations at the Autónoma University of Lisbon (UAL),

Portugal. Post-Doctorate in History from the State University of Rio de Janeiro (2018). PhD in

Education, Art and History of Culture from Mackenzie Presbyterian University (2014). Master's in

Psychology from the Catholic University of Brasília (2008). Graduated in Philosophy (BA and BSc)

from La Salle University in Canoas, RS (2001). General Director of La Salle College/Manaus.

Director of La Salle Educational Center (Brazil). Professor of “Ethics”, “Education” and

“Philosophy” at UNILASALLE/Lucas. Member of the Research Group at La Salle University-

Canoas/RS. Has experience in Philosophy, working mainly on the following subjects: Philosophy,

Ethics and Philosophy of Education, History of Education. BASis evaluator.

Abstract

The establishment of a comprehensive national public policy for the internationalization of

higher education in Brazil has been identified as an urgent and indispensable priority. Brazil

continues to face challenges in its strategic planning aimed at enhancing international

integration within the higher education sector, particularly in effectively promoting its

universities on the global stage. This study seeks to underscore the significance of

implementing a national internationalization policy tailored to Brazilian universities, grounded

in a thorough understanding of the current dynamics and characteristics of the

internationalization process in the country. To achieve this objective, the study first examines

the organizational structures of key government agencies, along with their respective

initiatives and programs related to internationalization. Subsequently, these elements are

critically analyzed in relation to the internationalization management processes at Higher

Education Institutions (HEIs), weighing their advantages and disadvantages. Through this

analysis, the study identifies the principal challenges confronting the development of a

cohesive national policy for internationalization. Methodologically, this research employs a

qualitative approach, utilizing bibliographic and documentary analysis. The findings reveal

that while the Brazilian government has played a significant role in the internationalization of

higher education, its actions have often been fragmented across various agencies. This lack

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150

of coordination has resulted in both benefits and setbacks for the internationalization efforts

of Brazilian HEIs and for the country as a whole. Based on these findings, the study

recommends fostering stronger collaboration between the government and HEIs in the

formulation of national strategies, as well as promoting a clearer understanding of Brazil’s

existing capabilities, ambitions, and potential within the internationalization landscape.

Keywords

Brazil, Internationalization, Higher Education, Public Policy, Management.

Resumo

A criação de uma política pública nacional abrangente para a internacionalização do ensino

superior no Brasil tem sido identificada como uma prioridade urgente e indispensável. O Brasil

continua a enfrentar desafios no seu planeamento estratégico destinado a reforçar a

integração internacional no setor do ensino superior, sobretudo no que respeita à promoção

eficaz das suas universidades no cenário global. Este estudo pretende sublinhar a importância

da implementação de uma política nacional de internacionalização ajustada às universidades

brasileiras, baseada numa compreensão aprofundada das dinâmicas e características atuais

do processo de internacionalização no país. Para alcançar este objetivo, o estudo analisa

inicialmente as estruturas organizacionais dos principais órgãos governamentais, bem como

as suas respetivas iniciativas e programas relacionados com a internacionalização.

Posteriormente, estes elementos são objeto de análise crítica em relação aos processos de

gestão da internacionalização nas Instituições de Ensino Superior (IES), avaliando os seus

benefícios e limitações. Através desta análise, identificam-se os principais desafios que se

colocam ao desenvolvimento de uma política nacional coesa para a internacionalização. Do

ponto de vista metodológico, esta investigação adota uma abordagem qualitativa, recorrendo

à análise bibliográfica e documental. Os resultados evidenciam que, embora o governo

brasileiro desempenhe um papel relevante na internacionalização do ensino superior, a sua

ação tem sido frequentemente fragmentada entre diferentes órgãos. Esta falta de

coordenação tem provocado tanto ganhos como prejuízos para os esforços de

internacionalização das IES brasileiras e para o país em geral. Com base nestes resultados, o

estudo recomenda o fortalecimento da colaboração entre o governo e as IES na formulação

de estratégias nacionais, bem como a promoção de uma compreensão mais clara das

capacidades, ambições e potencialidades do Brasil no contexto da internacionalização.

Palavras-chave

Brasil, Internacionalização, Ensino Superior, Política Pública, Gestão, Brasil.

How to cite this article

Miranda, José Alberto & Bentes, Jackson Luiz Nunes (2025). Internationalization of Higher

Education and Public Policy: advances and Setbacks in the Strategic Actions for the International

Integration of Brazilian Universities. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic

Dossier - Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1,

TD1. June 2025, pp. 149-162. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.10.

Article submitted on 8 April 2025 and accepted for publication on 12

May 2025.

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 149-162

Internationalization of Higher Education and Public Policy: advances and Setbacks in the

Strategic Actions for the International Integration of Brazilian Universitiesl

José Alberto Miranda, Jackson Luiz Nunes Bentes

151

INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND PUBLIC

POLICY: ADVANCES AND SETBACKS IN THE STRATEGIC ACTIONS

FOR THE INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION OF BRAZILIAN

UNIVERSITIES

JOSÉ ALBERTO MIRANDA

JACKSON LUIZ NUNES BENTES

Introduction

The internationalization of Brazilian higher education has, over recent decades, become

consolidated as a strategic element for fostering academic, scientific, and cultural

innovation—particularly within an increasingly interconnected global context. According

to Jane Knight (2020), internationalization is defined as the process of integrating an

international, intercultural, or global dimension into the functions and missions of higher

education. In Brazil, this movement has gained momentum, though it continues to face

significant challenges stemming from the absence of a comprehensive strategic

framework.

The internationalization process in Brazilian higher education institutions (HEIs) has

sparked debate regarding its relevance, associated challenges, and its potential impact

on national development. For João Sguissardi and José Silva Júnior (2009),

internationalization can enhance knowledge exchange, expand global visibility for

universities, and foster greater academic competitiveness. However, national initiatives

often lack a coherent public policy that integrates governmental and institutional actions,

thereby limiting the scope and effectiveness of such efforts. Moreover, international

engagement initiatives have revealed substantial gaps in terms of strategic planning and

integrated management. These deficiencies compromise the sustainability of

internationalization projects and diminish their potential benefits—such as the formation

of international research networks and the attraction of global talent.

It is also essential to recognize that internationalization goes beyond the mere mobility

of students and faculty. As highlighted by De Wit (2015), the concept entails a broader

institutional transformation, including the enhancement of internationalized curricula,

strategic academic partnerships, and inclusion policies for international students. In

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Brazil, developing a national internationalization policy requires a clear understanding of

the role of HEIs in the global landscape, as well as strategies to overcome local challenges

such as regional inequalities and budgetary constraints. As Stallivieri (2017) emphasizes,

it is crucial for institutions to conduct internal assessments in advance in order to

accurately identify their potential for international engagement and their capacity to

absorb the demands arising from this process.

Thus, the internationalization of higher education in Brazil represents a phenomenon that

offers significant opportunities but also demands coordinated efforts to address existing

structural and political challenges. As argued by Souza and Almeida (2021), the success

of this internationalization process depends on effective coordination between the state

and higher education institutions, with strategies that foster integration and strengthen

the Brazilian academic identity on the international stage.

This study aims to analyze the predominant characteristics of internationalization within

Brazilian universities, highlighting both the challenges and opportunities related to the

construction of an integrated national policy. Adopting a critical perspective, it examines

the actions and programs developed by key government agencies and their implications

for university governance and management. Using a qualitative methodology grounded

in bibliographic and documentary analysis, the study identifies both the gains and

setbacks resulting from governmental disarticulation and points toward the formulation

of more coherent strategies aligned with the broader interests of humanity.

In this way, the present article contributes to the ongoing discourse on the importance

of a national public policy aimed at promoting the internationalization of higher education

—specifically in Brazil — considering not only what has been accomplished, but, more

importantly, what remains to be achieved and what the country can offer in a competitive

global context. This analysis seeks to encourage a broader debate about the relevance

of internationalization as a strategic vector for strengthening Brazilian universities and

advancing the country’s national development agenda.

In the first part of this text, we examine the impact of globalization on education and the

integration of universities into the global landscape, primarily through the lens of Jane

Knight’s perspective and an analysis of how the internationalization process has unfolded

in countries lacking a clear national framework to guide such efforts.

In the second part, we reflect on the challenges facing the strategic international

engagement of Brazilian universities, with particular emphasis on how the development

of an international education policy requires public policy elements aligned with the

construction of a broader state project. This section highlights the weaknesses found in

national policy documents regarding the promotion of university internationalization in

Brazil.

In the third part, we present emerging trends in the international engagement of Brazilian

universities and the challenges involved in advancing this process, particularly through

South–South cooperation.

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1. Globalization and the Strategic Integration of Universities into the

Global Landscape

Globalization, by expanding opportunities for academic and scientific cooperation,

compels universities to rethink their strategies for international integration in alignment

with the internationalization objectives of the countries in which they are embedded. This

scenario presents numerous potential benefits, including the enhancement of student

preparation for global labor markets, the elevation of institutional standards, and the

promotion of enriching cultural exchange that contributes to national development.

Globalization directly impacts how students must be prepared to understand and apply

their knowledge. The interconnected nature of global systems demands the capacity to

comprehend complex problems and to research and implement solutions that take these

interdependencies into account. Individual decisions can have transnational

repercussions, necessitating the development of skills to anticipate, assess, and ethically

evaluate personal and professional actions from a global perspective (Lauder, 2006).

The internationalization of higher education has become a strategic option for countries

seeking to position themselves in a competitive and globalized environment, where,

increasingly, “... internationalization is essential for survival” (Moreira & Ranincheski,

2019: 1). According to Jane Knight, there are several reasons a country might pursue

the development of a national public policy on internationalization. While national

motivations have evolved over the past two decades, key drivers include commercial

interests, the acquisition of talent, human resource development, diplomacy, and nation-

building (Knight, 2020).

Countries motivated by such objectives generally aim to align internal policies—

particularly in education—with national technological, scientific, and economic

development goals. Additionally, there is often an emphasis on integrating the country

into the international arena, underpinned by foreign policy. In this context, a national

public policy on internationalization represents a pathway through which the state

establishes guidelines to be followed by the various stakeholders involved in the process.

Despite the compelling nature of these motivations, many countries still lack a clearly

defined national policy.

To date, the literature has devoted limited attention to how the process of

internationalization unfolds in countries without specific national policies or strategic

direction. In such cases, what often exists are isolated, fragmented, and inconsistent

government initiatives. Moreover, universities are central actors in the

internationalization process. They are both recipients of public policy and active agents

in achieving policy goals, given that most internationalization-related actions are

conceptualized, developed, and implemented within the academic environment. Thus,

universities play a dual role—as both implementers and architects of internationalization

strategies—placing them at the center of progress in this field.

Identifying a country’s national interests and translating them into foreign policy strategy

is a highly complex task, particularly in democratic contexts. Governments increasingly

derive legitimacy from their ability to understand and address the needs and aspirations

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of the populations they represent. For this reason, in the contemporary world, states and

governments remain essential intermediaries in both domestic affairs and the

international system (Lafer, 2007).

According to Giacomino, there are currently three sources of power in international

politics: military power, economic power, and soft power. These sources are not mutually

exclusive but carry different weights in the diplomacy of each country (Giacomino, 2009).

Soft power strategies are often linked to culture, education, media, and tourism. For such

strategies to produce lasting results, they must go beyond isolated events and be

embedded in long-term programs, managed by specialists with secured financial

resources. The use of international education as a soft power tool is common in the

current international context. Countries such as Spain, France, the United Kingdom,

Germany, and the United States frequently leverage education in their foreign policy

strategies.

Many of these countries have developed specific policy documents. Spain, for example,

in an effort to strengthen the identity of its higher education system, designed and

implemented its internationalization policy through the publication of the document

Strategy for the Internationalization of Spanish Universities 2015–2020. The document

outlines the goal of:

“Consolidating a strong and internationally attractive university system that promotes

the inbound and outbound mobility of top students, faculty, researchers, and

administrative staff, enhances educational quality, leverages the Spanish language as a

vehicle for higher education, and supports the internationalization of educational

programs and research and innovation activities, thereby contributing to Spain’s

attractiveness and international competitiveness.” (Spain, 2014)

The United Kingdom and Germany—countries that employ international education as a

foreign policy instrument—have also developed strategic national documents that guide

the internationalization of their higher education systems. These documents typically

outline necessary actions for modernizing and enhancing the quality of university

systems, identifying internationalization as a strategic area for national development.

National actions and programs that use education as a diplomatic tool illustrate the

various forms of public diplomacy and aim to foster rapprochement and cooperative

relationships between nations. Academic exchanges promoted by countries are a clear

example of the practical application of soft power (Giacomino, 2009, p.159). Educational

cooperation initiatives can be seen as a positive dimension of international relations, as

they contribute to economic and social development and promote values such as

tolerance and respect for cultural diversity. Dougherty and Pfaltzgraff (2003) argue that

education can serve as a means of building a particular kind of political community.

Through education, political actors are encouraged—within their national frameworks—

to shift their loyalties, expectations, and political activities toward a new center, whose

institutions claim jurisdiction over established nation-states (Dougherty & Pfaltzgraff,

2003, p. 648).

In this study, the internationalization of higher education is understood as a commitment

to advancing international and comparative perspectives through teaching, research, and

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service missions in higher education. It defines the institution's ethos and values,

influencing the entirety of its educational enterprise. It should be considered an

institutional imperative, not merely a desirable option (Hudzik, 2015). While

internationalization envisions the institution beyond national borders, universities remain

rooted in local and national contexts and influenced by national policies and local

constituencies. The dichotomy between the local and the global is a false one;

internationalization mediates between the two, with global dynamics impacting the local

and vice versa.

However, internationalization does not solely mean the physical movement of individuals

to distant locations, though mobility is often involved. The central notion is the mobility

of ideas, which may circulate not only through travel but also via the internet and other

digital media. According to Hudzik (2015), the dominant models of the modern

university—shaped in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries—paralleled the rise of the

nation-state. Universities were fundamentally national institutions. Tensions often arose

between serving national interests and fostering the transnational exchange of ideas and

scholars in pursuit of global knowledge. Internationalization at that time was often in

conflict with political, institutional, and cultural constraints, and viewed as an

individualistic phenomenon.

Higher education institutions exhibit unique characteristics. Even within centralized

national systems, institutions develop distinct formal and informal cultures and

governance mechanisms shaped by local traditions and leadership. A comprehensive

internationalization process must be consistent with and committed to the institutional

principles of each HEI.

In developed countries, internationalization has been integrated into state policy and

implemented not only by HEIs but by the executive branch as a whole. In other words,

the role of state policy in promoting the internationalization of higher education

institutions in developed countries is explicit (Lima & Contel, 2011; Laus, 2012; De Wit,

2015; Stallivieri, 2017).

This interdependence and convergence between state actions and HEI initiatives in higher

education internationalization is of great importance, particularly when understood as a

set of policies and programs implemented by universities and governments in pragmatic

response to globalization (Gacel, 2003).

Thus, the central thesis emerges that the internationalization of higher education hinges

on the political decision of the state to pursue such a process. However, for the country

to move in a unified direction, HEI decisions must align with the guiding objectives of

governmental policies.

2. The Challenges of the Strategic International Integration of Brazilian

Universities

In Brazil, there are some low-impact initiatives in the realm of foreign policy that

nonetheless offer opportunities for young Latin American and African students to pursue

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studies in the country. These programs aim to encourage educational exchange and

promote Brazilian culture, primarily within the field of scientific cooperation. Examples

include the Undergraduate Student Exchange Program (PEC-G), the Graduate Student

Exchange Program (PEC-PG), and, in the past, the landmark Science Without Borders

program.

Traditional forms of international relations among states have come to require new

expressions of power. Emerging international actors—such as multinational corporations,

NGOs, media organizations, and international public opinion—are now influenced more

by soft power than by hard power. To achieve national objectives, diplomacy has had to

recognize the role of public opinion and the media. In other words, foreign policy is now

shaped not only by governments but also by these new international actors. Among its

many functions, education serves to promote culture and shared values, contributing to

social cohesion and integration. Durkheim emphasized this point by identifying education

as an essential support for the construction and consolidation of the nation-state

(Durkheim, 1977).

In Brazil, the Division of Educational Affairs, located within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

is responsible for developing foreign policy actions related to education in collaboration

with other national government agencies. Among the Itamaraty’s key roles in educational

cooperation are its joint management of the PEC-G and PEC-PG programs with the

Ministry of Education, its oversight of general issues related to educational cooperation

in Brazil, participation in the negotiation of international education agreements, and

coordination of educational cooperation activities conducted abroad (Brazil, 2016b).

Developing a policy for international education requires public policy components that

align with a broader state-building project. Presently, although there are economic,

political, academic, and sociocultural motivations supporting national development

through education and technology, there remains a lack of clear strategies demonstrating

how international education can strengthen Brazil's international position within the

global higher education system.

According to José Alberto de Miranda and Luciane Stallivieri, there are numerous

weaknesses in Brazil’s official documents regarding the promotion of internationalization

in higher education institutions. These documents, they argue, are not grounded in an

ambitious public policy capable of defining the direction Brazil seeks to pursue regarding

the global integration of its universities. Moreover, the absence of an official policy

framework hampers progress in this field, complicating the conceptualization of

internationalization for a country with Brazil’s unique economic, geographic, and linguistic

profile, as well as the definition of quality standards (Miranda & Stallivieri, p. 610).

In Brazil, scientific and technological knowledge production is largely concentrated at the

graduate level. International cooperation typically begins with the training of doctoral

students and professors abroad, which, over the course of their careers, leads to

relationships not only through the consumption of international literature but also

through academic partnerships with the departments and research centers in which they

studied. This process enables advanced international cooperation, characterized by the

joint production of knowledge through collaborative research projects. The development

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of academic networks supported by funding calls promotes research and the training of

human resources in partnership with international institutions. Graduate-level

international cooperation is primarily managed by Capes/MEC and CNPq/MCT. Both

agencies operate in overlapping areas. While CNPq is working to revitalize its research

agenda, approximately 60% of its resources still go toward scholarships—that is, training.

Efforts to promote internationalization by the Ministry of Education focus, on one hand,

on graduate student training, emphasizing the importance of international internships.

Scholarships are allocated according to each academic field’s domestic training capacity.

“Doctoral programs in Brazil must be complemented with shorter-term international

internships. Evidently, certain fields—whether due to the need for mass training, the

underdevelopment of domestic programs, or the complete absence of such programs—

heavily depend on foreign training.” Furthermore, the plan proposes to “reinforce

graduate education abroad as an integral component of Brazil’s human capital

development system; implement a more efficient system to improve the orientation,

selection, and monitoring of scholarship recipients; and restore the international

purchasing power of scholarships in the short term by creating differentiated mechanisms

that consider, among other factors, the destination country of the candidate” (CAPES

2025). On the other hand, the plan also encourages researcher internationalization

through international exchanges, the articulation of national and international

partnerships, and the institutionalization of sabbatical opportunities, with a focus on

postdoctoral studies to enhance scientific exchange.

It is also worth noting that some graduate programs are highly internationalized, with

consolidated international academic networks, the regular presence of distinguished

foreign researchers, high-quality joint international publications, and Brazilian scholars

serving as visiting professors or guest lecturers abroad. At the same time, other

programs exhibit minimal or no international engagement, remaining focused primarily

on Brazilian or regional contexts. In other words, graduate programs in Brazil vary widely

in their levels of internationalization (Morosini, 2011).

3. New Trends in the International Integration of Brazilian Universities

As the internationalization of higher education continues to advance, new possibilities

have emerged, reflecting global socio-economic realignments—such as the shift of the

world’s center of gravity from the North Atlantic to the Global South and East Asia, and

a reduction in the process of Americanization, whereby the United States no longer holds

undisputed global hegemony. This transition is also marked by the systematic weakening

of the authority of nation-states (Hobsbawm, 2010). The BRICS countries—Brazil, Russia,

India, China, and new members—stand out as emerging powers. Despite accounting for

nearly half of the global population, 20% of the world's landmass, and 15% of global

GDP, these nations still face major obstacles in becoming hubs of innovation. These

challenges include authoritarian regimes, overpopulation, conflicting trade relationships,

and linguistic barriers. Thus, the traditional model of international cooperation—

characterized by a South-North qualification logic—remains dominant, although it is now

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more commonly applied to specific programs and areas of expertise rather than general

or isolated demands.

In summary, international higher education is shifting from an era dominated by public

policies fostering South-North relations to a new phase increasingly marked by South-

South cooperation. While the accumulated expertise of developed countries underscores

the continued importance of South-North internationalization, South-South cooperation—

grounded in solidarity among developing nations—has the added benefit of strengthening

regional blocs in a transnationalized world.

As noted by Marília Morosini, every academic exchange has a dual character. The

expansion of South-South cooperation can also stem from Brazilian commercial interests,

thus mirroring the same logic found in traditional international cooperation. The point

here is that as developing countries increase their qualifications, stronger exchange

relationships can be established—ranging from graduate and postdoctoral education, to

academic networks, and even commercial opportunities such as book publishing, faculty

exchanges, and consulting services (Morosini, 2011).

According to Almerinda de Carvalho, head of the Division of Educational Affairs at the

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the internationalization of higher education affects Brazil’s

global standing in three key dimensions: (a) economically, by producing a more qualified

workforce to drive national development; (b) politically, by strengthening diplomatic ties

through educational cooperation as part of a positive foreign policy agenda, promoting

Brazil’s image as a nation grounded in solidarity and committed to peace, mutual

understanding, and international trust; and (c) culturally, through interpersonal

exchange, language acquisition, and shared experiences that foster closer bonds with

other societies (Carvalho, 2014).

Capes has pursued a truly academic internationalization of Brazil’s university system and

is recognized internationally as an effective agency in this regard. One of the agency’s

original goals at its founding in 1951 was to address gaps in Brazil’s educational system—

particularly in comparison to major global powers—through scientific and academic

cooperation (Canedo & Garcia, 2004–2005). With the development of graduate programs

in Brazil over the years, conditions were created for internationalization to evolve from a

reactive, receiver-oriented model to one based on more equitable collaboration among

inter-institutional groups (Laus & Morosini, 2005).

At the governmental level, the promotion of university internationalization must acquire

strategic significance for the nation. However, current policy documents rarely articulate

this objective explicitly. Instead, they tend to reference broader goals such as national

development, human capital formation, and the promotion of science and technology

research. Brazilian universities’ openness to the world must be accompanied by greater

reciprocity, enabling modernization and innovation through international cooperation.

Presently, much of Brazil’s international cooperation remains one-sided, often benefiting

only one of the participating partners.

This lack of reciprocity is not consistently addressed in Brazil’s official documents.

Although economic, political, academic, and sociocultural motivations for

internationalization are acknowledged as essential to supporting the country’s

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June 2025, pp. 149-162

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Strategic Actions for the International Integration of Brazilian Universitiesl

José Alberto Miranda, Jackson Luiz Nunes Bentes

159

development, there is still an absence of clear strategies showing how internationalization

will strengthen Brazil’s position within the global higher education system. In other

words, there is no concrete vision for how Brazil intends to actively assert itself on the

international education stage through its higher education institutions.

The absence of a comprehensive national document guiding the design and

implementation of regional and national internationalization policies impedes progress in

the field. This gap also hinders the conceptualization of internationalization in the

Brazilian context and obstructs the definition of quality parameters that reflect the

country’s unique economic, geographic, and linguistic characteristics.

Only through the construction of a positive policy agenda, continuous and productive

dialogue, inclusive debate, and the development of a national framework that

incorporates the perspectives of key stakeholders can Brazil establish a coherent and

long-term vision for higher education internationalization—one that aligns with the

country’s broader strategic objectives and global aspirations.

Conclusion

The reflections presented in this study indicate that, over the past twenty years, the

Brazilian government has played an important role in shaping the country’s higher

education landscape. However, it has acted in a fragmented and uncoordinated manner

through its various governmental agencies when it comes to the internationalization of

Brazilian universities. This disarticulation has had consequences for both the

management of internationalization at the institutional level and the formulation of

strategic directives that would enable Brazil to benefit more fully from global

engagement.

With the goal of contributing to the development of new interpretations and policy

pathways, this study identifies the urgent need for a national public policy on

internationalization—one that recognizes the varying degrees, actors, and potentials of

internationalization within Brazilian higher education. Cutting-edge research, aligned

with Brazil’s technological development needs, must be prioritized in order to enhance

the country's global competitiveness and, in turn, contribute to its broader social and

economic advancement.

Policy must not only guide efforts to increase the degree of internationalization across

universities but also propose innovative approaches. For example, recognizing

internationalization as an integral part of the university mission, promoting virtual

collaboration initiatives to make internationalized training more inclusive, and creating

incentives and mechanisms to involve more students and faculty with international

experience are all key elements of a contemporary national strategy.

The international integration of Brazilian universities must be developed domestically and

serve as the driving force behind a truly national process. It is necessary to move beyond

the current duality in which institutions await guidance from the government, and the

government, in turn, expects action from the institutions.

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Placing the entire responsibility for developing internationalization on the universities

themselves reveals the absence of a clear governmental intention to strategically position

Brazil on a global stage through science, technology, extension expertise, and globally

relevant education. It normalizes the country’s reactive stance toward

internationalization and, consequently, its marginal role in the global development of

science and technology. This perpetuates a model in which Brazil remains primarily an

exporter of intellectual talent and raw materials.

Therefore, it is urgent that internationalization be understood in a broader, more systemic

manner—across all levels of education—so that higher education can truly contribute to

societal transformation. Higher education is only the tip of the iceberg in the educational

system.

To view Brazil exclusively through the lens of the “world-class university” model is to

disregard the country’s deep-rooted educational inequalities and social challenges.

Internationalization initiatives that fail to address, for example, the large number of

students pursuing teaching degrees—without any concerted effort to address this

imbalance—are at best disconnected from Brazil’s future and the preparation of its next

generations.

Public policy and internationalization must not be detached from social realities, nor

should they be designed solely to serve the interests of a narrow elite of individuals or

institutions. The guiding principles must be inclusion, democracy, and alignment with the

needs and aspirations of society as a whole, in the interest of ensuring that the benefits

of internationalization are widely shared.

When education becomes a central component of a country’s foreign policy agenda—

aimed at identity-building and community development—it is essential to reflect on who

formulates and who implements that policy. Such reflection is critical for enhancing the

national discourse on how the internationalization of higher education institutions relates

to the broader direction and destiny of the nation.

Nevertheless, it is evident that Brazil has yet to develop a clear identity framework for

the internationalization of higher education as a matter of public policy. The absence of

an official document capable of guiding higher education institutions, establishing clear

directives, and promoting the balanced development of Brazilian education in the global

arena reinforces the urgent need for a national identity framework. While several

programs and documents with targeted actions have emerged and offer clear benefits,

they have not stemmed from a cohesive public policy. As such, they have failed to provide

strategic direction or meaning to Brazil’s efforts to position itself more effectively in global

higher education.

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Strategic Actions for the International Integration of Brazilian Universitiesl

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OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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AN EXAMINATION AND VALIDATION OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING

SKILLS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN UGANDA

MIIRO FAROOQ

miirofarooq@gmail.com

Senior Lecturer, Department of Educational Management and Administration

Islamic University in Uganda (Uganda). He is a specialist in educational leadership, with a

primary focus on teaching thinking skills and integrating wisdom pedagogy into curriculum

reform. He holds a PhD in Educational Management from the International Islamic University

Malaysia (IIUM), alongside a Master of Education and a Bachelor of Arts with Education from the

Islamic University in Uganda (IUIU). Currently, he serves as a Senior Lecturer in the Department

of Educational Management and Administration at IUIU. With over 15 years of active engagement

in higher education, Dr. Farooq has published more than 29 book chapters and peer-reviewed

articles addressing the intersections of curriculum development, teacher education, and

educational leadership in African and Islamic contexts. He has successfully led and collaborated

on several educational reform projects aimed at enhancing teacher preparation and institutional

management in Uganda and beyond. His research interests stem from a deep concern with the

disconnection between education and human transformation. His scholarly inquiry explores

pressing questions such as: Why do students lose motivation in learning? Why is the ethical and

spiritual dimension of teaching diminishing in higher education? Why do educated societies still

struggle with underdevelopment, poor leadership, and moral decline? Dr. Farooq’s work is

dedicated to rethinking the purpose of education through the lens of spirituality, critical thinking,

and contextual relevance. His academic mission is to contribute to a more human-centered and

values-driven approach to higher education in Africa and the broader Global South. ORCID:

0000-0002-1369-7535

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine and validate the concept of Social emotional learning

skills (SEL) among university students in Uganda . The concept has become an issue of

relevance among scholars and academicians towards preparation of a holistic graduate. A

cross-sectional research design, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor

analysis of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) were used to examine the hypothesized SEL

measurement model. A randomly chosen sample of 664 volunteers was used to examine the

Cronbach’s alpha construct reliability and validity, composite reliability, maximal reliability,

and discriminant and convergent validity standards. The findings of the study reflected that

the hypothesized measurement model is a significant five-factor model with 24 items

correlated with one another. The study recommends that HEIs and future studies can apply

SEL measurement model based on the context and culture of a given area.

Keywords

B Social Emotional Learning, Self-Management, Self-Awareness, Responsible Decision Making,

Social-Awareness, Relationship-Management.

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Resumo

Este estudo tem por objetivo examinar e validar o conceito de “competências de

aprendizagem socio-emocional” (Social and Emotional Learning – SEL) entre estudantes do

ensino superior no Uganda. A relevância deste conceito tem vindo a aumentar no meio

académico e científico, particularmente no que se refere à formação de graduados holísticos,

capazes de integrar competências cognitivas e socio-emocionais. Recorreu-se a um desenho

de investigação transversal, com a aplicação de uma Análise Fatorial Exploratória (AFE) e de

uma Análise Fatorial Confirmatória através da Modelação por Equações Estruturais (Structural

Equation Modelling – SEM), com vista a testar a adequação de um modelo hipotético de

medição das competências SEL. A amostra do estudo foi constituída por 664 participantes,

selecionados aleatoriamente, tendo sido analisadas a fiabilidade e a validade do construto

com base em diversos indicadores estatísticos: alfa de Cronbach, fiabilidade composta,

fiabilidade máxima e padrões de validade convergente e discriminante. Os resultados

indicaram que o modelo hipotético de medição apresentou significância estatística,

estruturando-se em cinco fatores principais, com um total de 24 itens intercorrelacionados.

Estes achados sustentam a adequação do modelo teórico proposto no contexto específico da

amostra estudada. O estudo recomenda, por conseguinte, que as Instituições de Ensino

Superior considerem a aplicação deste modelo de competências SEL, devidamente adaptado

ao contexto cultural e educacional em que se insere, e sugere a realização de investigações

futuras que explorem a validade do modelo noutras realidades socioculturais.

Palavras-chave

Uganda, Ensino Superior, Aprendizagem Socio-Emocional, Autoconsciência, Decisão

Responsável, Consciência Social.

How to cite this article

Farooq, Miiro (2025). An Examination and Validation of Social and Emotional Learning Skills among

University Students in Uganda. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier -

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June

2025, pp. 163-188. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.11.

Article submitted on 28

March 2025 and accepted for publication on 6 May 2025.

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June 2025, pp. 163-188

An Examination and Validation of Social and Emotional Learning Skills among University

Students in Ugandal

Miiro Farooq

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AN EXAMINATION AND VALIDATION OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL

LEARNING SKILLS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN UGANDA

MIIRO FAROOQ

Introduction

As the world continues to traverse through unprecedented moments in human life, the

solution for any future challenges of any country in terms of political, social, economic

and religious aspects of life will depend on the way schools nurture the learners of today.

For instance; learners who come from poor backgrounds with family dysfunctions, abuse

are likely not to face a miserable future if their emotional learning skills are not addressed

(Baker, et al…, 2003; Nickolite & Doll, 2008). Therefore nurturing learners with SEL will

help several countries to cause socio-economic cohesions among graduates. Unlike in the

past centuries, countries that are more focused on the bright future of their citizens, have

laid tremendous strategies to uplift their levels of civility through visionary education that

encompasses stunning scientific adventures and innovation to help them thrive in the

challenging socio-economic situations of all times. This is done to encounter opportunities

and at the same time pave ways through which new dimensions that shape up human

endeavors can be addressed to tackle issues of multiculturalism and socio-political issues

through the use of social emotional learning. For instance, in the USA when the pressure

for No Child Left Behind Act came into existence, a lot was experienced for example,

states’ laws governing students achievement, instructional practices and accountability

changed due to the readily apparent needs of students that call for changes in the way

teachers and schools nurture and address students’ needs (Rohanna, et al., 2009).

To cope with the new trends of technological advancement and innovation, there is need

for HEIs to rethink about the nature of education needed to raise the levels of civilization

all over the world. This is due to the fact that there is no any other shortcut that the

bright future of citizens will exist without research in these key forces that shape up the

future times. Without thinking in these lines, educational institutions will remain

operating using the past traditional methods especially in teaching and learning

situations, the education strategies of tomorrow will remain a jeopardy and kill the

developmental strategies for enhancing skills of thinking and reasoning among learners.

It is therefore important for governments to prioritize investment in higher education to

boost research, publication and academic excellence in areas like social emotional

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learning skills. This approach will empower learners at HEIs with skills for self-

management, self-awareness social responsibility and making responsible decisions

(McCuin, 2012).

Since the wealth of any country lies in the education of its people, for countries to capture

the soft and hardware technological standards of their people, there is need to imbue

social emotional learning skills and practices in the higher education system so as to help

learners and teachers discover themselves and think selflessly towards the development

of their communities.

Given the increased research on the importance of Social emotional learning skills

adoption in different education systems world over, a multidimensional nature of this

concept should be sufficiently conceptualized and tested among university students. The

purpose of this is to guide in the nurturing and upbringing of learners in different field of

human development. This is due to the fact that these institutions play a very big role in

preparation of the human capital required for socio-economic transformation and

development. Even though this trend has been adopted in both developed and

developing countries, Uganda’s HEIs seem to be lagging behind in re-conceptualizing

the curricula intertwined with this aspect of human development and growth. This is

because many of their graduates seem not to mind about SEL skills. Also at present there

is scanty information available to guide us on the nature and state of SEL constructs and

their relationship at higher education level in Uganda.

Definition of social emotional learning

Social emotional and life skill learning have been talked about for years as means that

help individuals recognize and control their sentiments, care for others, take good

decisions, be responsible by behaving ethically well to develop relationships with others

and avoid negative tendencies that hurt others (Elias, et al., 2007). Today, many parts

of the world are looking at these skills as critical foundation for formation of future

societies. It is important to note that acquiring knowledge in different disciplines and of

itself alone cannot help to better the future of competent human being. However it is

imperative that societies think in arenas of producing knowledge and intelligent mindsets

coupled with caring attitudes and compassion for developing health communities. This

cannot be attained without investing in training the stakeholders in the area of social

emotional learning since most of the learners today are more in school based programs

and activities.

Social emotional learning can be termed as a process through which both adults and

children attain knowledge and skills needed to facilitate their relevance, efficiency and

effectiveness in managing social contexts (Gehlbach & Hough, 2018). It a mechanism

that many researchers and educationists propose to help learners understand how to

deal with challenges of fear, frustration, guilt and blame (Reynolds, 2016). This process

equips learners with techniques of recognition and management of emotion, development

of care and being concerned about others, being responsible in decisions and

establishment of good rapport and relationship in handling puzzling situations effectively

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(Zhou & Ee, 2012). Meanwhile, CASEL (2003) refers to social emotional learning as a

process by which learners acquire knowledge and skills to navigate through their life

challenges. The philosophy of carrying out SEL is to help leaners gain supportive ways

and competences needed through learner-teacher relationship to addresses the

challenging environment engulfed with unethical tendencies that require someone to

being a good student, citizen, and worker that avoids many different risky behaviors.

Numerous studies have so far been done for instance; a study conducted by Poulou

(2017) on students’ emotional and behavioral difficulties; the role of teachers’ social and

emotional learning and teacher-student relations, with a sample of 98 teachers. It was

established that teachers’ perception of emotional intelligence and social emotional

learning are not related to students’ emotional and behavioral difficulties. Also Cooper

(2010) stresses that there is need for coherence between different policies in regard to

social emotional learning which educational sectors should give particular attention and

provide solutions to social challenges that face the youth. In a study done by Buchanan

and Gueldner (2009) on social and emotional learning in classroom; a survey of teacher’s

knowledge, perceptions, and practices in USA using a sample of 263, it found out that

many teachers believed that SEL is relevant and should be given an important role

towards receiving, training and support from different professions in order to improve

students’ academic performance.

Meanwhile, the world is going through situations of antagonism, merciless killings, and

drought and drug abuse. These behaviours have not only made no difference between

life and death in some parts of the world, but they have also caused several negative

effects both in development and preservation of civilizations. Therefore to find solutions

for similar challenges and those that are likely to happen in future, many countries are

redefining the nature of their education systems from K-12 elementary levels of

education so as to create a brighter future for their citizens ( Miiro, 2017). Even though

this is the practice at lower levels of education, there is need to capture social emotional

learning skills at HEIs especially in Africa, Uganda inclusive. There is need to integrate

HEIs curriculum with SEL in order to prepare well-grounded graduates for socio-economic

transformation of their communities. Though, the biggest percentage of graduates do

not measure to the standards in terms of social emotional learning skills, thus finding it

hard to manage themselves and at the same time provide social services to their

communities (Miiro & Baguma, 2023). Since there is anecdote of information on the

concept of SEL among higher education institutions in Ugandan education institution, this

research further intends to establish the constructs that measure this concept according

to different schools of thought.

Moreover, at the same time today’s leadership is required to pass on responsibility to

graduates in order to drive the nations forward. Meanwhile in developing countries that

normally face immense challenges of emotional difficulties for instance; African countries

especially Uganda, do not seem to pay greater attention to this aspect especially in higher

education institutions. Whereas, on the other hand higher education institutions are

taken as hubs for providing solutions to community challenges (Farooq, 2024). It is

therefore imperative that these institutions play a greater role of providing more

productivity channels of higher performance to their graduates through emotional

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learning skills to cope up with change demands of the time. In order to attain sustainable

solutions towards human behaviours there is need to equip learners with the necessary

skills required for enhancement of a harmonious society (Hull, et al., 2021).

Today’s generation is in dire need of educators with the right mind set to address their

behavioral challenges for purposes of boosting their academic performance (Barak, et

al., 2020). This is because many of these students are exposed to different courses that

sometimes limit their scope of reasoning and logical approaches for solutions to their

challenges. It is therefore important that lecturer- student interaction is at its best to

help them acquire both soft and hard skills of emotional learning (Jimbai et al., 2021).

Owing to this kind of practice that many countries are opting for to improve the status

of their graduates to boost the economic growth though, little seems to be taking place

or known about SEL practice in higher education institutions (HEIs) especially in Uganda.

Countries are vying for better education as the major source of economic development

and civilization. This is attributed to both the history of human civilization and global

forces that help to shape up communities and their challenges. The global demands put

it clear that for any country to survive in the next generation, its citizens must attain

high skilled education in order to boost both individual and national growth (Miiro &

Baguma, 2023). To achieve this dream. nations should integrate curriculum with social

emotional learning skills to acquire reasonable levels of civility. This kind of practice is

geared towards helping the disadvantaged from being exploited and at the same time

maintaining equality at all levels. Whereas other parts of the world are focusing their

resources on this aspect through several ways to ensure that every child is catered for

in terms of quality education, the Ugandan situation does not seem to predict and portray

the same picture. This study is therefore designed to examine and validate the current

practice and factors of social emotional learning skills among university students in

Uganda.

Literature review of social emotional learning skills

In the recent past decades, the issue of social emotional learning has received greater

attention among researchers and educators. This kind of attention has cropped up due

to changes the world forces for instance, commodification, privatization, capitalization

are posing to influence human behavior especially the young generation. Many children

of the future generation seem to be caught at crossroads with inhumane behaviours that

some countries have been exposed to in different parts of the world. For that reason,

there is need for schools to rescue the young generation and prepare them for the better

future in terms of values and skills required for self-development and community

transformation. To help children navigate school-related challenges, fostering teacher-

student relationship is essential for adapting to changing educational demands (Poulou,

2017). To bridge this gap, schools should implement strategies that help learners

develop self-awareness and resilience for future challenges. It is against this background

that this study is designed to examine the social emotional learning skills among

university students in Uganda.

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Students in Ugandal

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For learners to attain support and competencies that help them gain skills that link the

social, academic and emotional development, self-awareness, social awareness,

recognition, and self-control of emotions, building relationship skills, empathy and being

responsible in decision making should be considered as a foundation for students’

progress in this aspect of life (Smart, 2017). To achieve better results of the said sub

dimensions of SEL, there is need to integrate the existing curriculum with these sub

constructs of SEL so as to improve learners’ perceptions of life and its challenges

(Gehlbach & Hough, 2018; Reynolds, 2016). Since HEIs play a greater role in generating

solutions to society needs, challenges and desires, the onus is on them to ensure that

they link the SEL components in curriculum, research and development of concepts that

address social needs of their communities. Meanwhile Corcoran & Tormey, (2012), argue

for an integration of traditional and modern theories in SEL assessment. However, their

study lacks a cross-cultural perspectives, which is crucial for its application in diverse

contexts like Uganda.

It is therefore vital that HEIs provide SEL programs since they play a significant role

towards positive social response, emotional benefits and at the same time improve

students’ academic performance. Meanwhile, below are the components of social

emotional learning as per results indicated in a study done by Zhou and Ee (2014) on

Development and Validation of the Social Emotional Competence Questionnaire (SECQ).

It was found that self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, relationship

management and responsible decision-making are the five construct that measure SEL.

These results were generated from a sample of 356 Singapore secondary schools and all

the components from the questionnaire correlated through the use of Confirmatory

Factor Analysis.

In addition, other scholars divide the dimensions of SEL into two, the primary and

secondary, for instance; primary involves improvement in learning motivation, decrease

in school dismissal rates, academic excellence as well as having more commitment to

school programs whereas secondary involves increase in cooperation with others,

development of problem solving and social skills, care for healthy life and commitment

to society issues, and lastly, is less involvement in crimes, abuse of substance and

improvement in family relationship (Gülcan Faika Ülvay, 2018).

Since there seems to be no agreed upon concept of social emotional learning and its

measurements and this is brought about by the way different researchers understand

the concept in relation to site and populations studies. This study employed the

Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) (2008) which

involves recognition and control of emotions, development of care and concern for others,

establishment of positive relationships, making responsible decisions, management of

challenging situations ethically and constructively. This comprehensive model which is

complete enough in that it covers most of the critical aspects of both social and emotional

competence as enumerated in other theoretical models (Bar-on, 2014; Ji & Dubois, 2013;

Levesseur, 2015). This study found it reasonable enough to expand and examine the

same model on Ugandan university students in the central region. This is because the

model involves understanding both personal and other people’s emotions so as to acquire

skills for laying a firm ground and take responsible decisions( Cooper, 2010; Mayer et

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al., 2012; Zhou & Ee, 2014). Below are the five sub constructs of the framework for

social emotional learning; self-awareness, social awareness, self-management,

relationship management and responsible decision making.

Self-awareness: This is a skill that requires one to discover him/herself in terms of

strength, feelings, weakness, emotions and how they affect ones or her performance

(Lee, et al., 2019). It requires self-discovery using one’s cognitive capacity and laying a

strategy of improving one’s self development (Ji & Dubois, 2013). Moreover, learners

who are aware of their inner person tend to recognize themselves and understand clearly

the reasons behind their emotional reactions and lay strategies for self-management

especially in both exciting and challenging situations (Levesseur, 2015). Equipping

learning with skills of self-regulatory abilities is important, in that it helps them to

acknowledge their emotions metacognitively and be in better position to develop self-

control emotions mechanism and thus arrive at reasonable ways of making decisions.

Self- management: Is the ability to regulate someone’s emotions and this can be seen

in handling of stress, impulses’ control and perseverance in overpowering obstacles

faced. In this aspect learners are taught ways of monitoring their academic progress and

scores and at the same time expressing their inner feelings appropriately. When this

aspect is not done well, students who cannot control their feelings tend not to think and

perform well, whereas, on the other side those who are exposed to these skills tend to

be successful at work and also handle their peers relationships well (Adams, 2011;

Gülcan Faika Ülvay, 2018; Uka, 2014).

Social awareness: Is the ability to read other individuals’ cues and to comprehend and

appropriately respond to their feelings. In simple terms, it implies the ability of an

individual to appreciate diversity in background and culture, and to have empathy with

others. It involves sharing emotions with friends and attaining a better way of relating

with them ( Nickolite & Doll, 2008; Uka, 2014). It is therefore important that lecturers

and teachers at all levels of education help learners to acquire the skill of understanding

other peoples’ perspectives, attitudes and perceptions over certain issues and appreciate

their levels and backgrounds. This kind of approach for instance; helps learners to

interpret other peoples thoughts, feelings by demonstrating sensitivity over their matters

in even complex situations. It also helps to explain the ambiguities and difficulty

situations of using harmonious and peaceful means. Children who are natured with this

aspect of SEL tend to have sensitivity, maturity in handling issues and inhibitory

control(Bar-on, 2014; Zhou & Ee, 2014).

Relationship management: In this aspect friends play an important role in management

of other students’ affairs especially at school. Studies such as (Martín-Antón, et al.,

2016)indicate that students who are rejected by friends tend to get isolated and feel like

denied by the society. In such a situation when loneliness and isolation take lead, the

student is likely to perform poorly and eventually leave the school if he/she is not cared

about (Poulou, 2017).

Responsible decision making: It refers to having ability to make with ethics and safety

meanings of arriving at decisions that do not only benefit an individual per se but also

considers society wellbeing. This kind of approach can enable the learner to mind about

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his or her academic excellence and equally think about the social situations that

contribute to the wellbeing of the society and the school community (Baskin & Sipa,

2014).

Worldwide, the issue of integrating SEL concept into the curriculum reform is a national

concern that calls for different strategies from different actors within the education sector

for its proper development and implementation. From 1924 to date, Uganda’s education

system has gone through several stages of development and reforms (Tromp &

Datzberger, 2021). However, the required results of a reformed curriculum have not been

achieved as intended due to lack of quality teachers and professionalism at all levels of

education imbued with SEL. The Teacher Initiative for Sub-Saharan Africa TISSA)

indicated that the quality of education in sub-Saharan Africa Uganda inclusive was facing

serious challenges that range from lack of teacher professionalism, shortage of science

teachers, inadequate quality assurance standards, under-professionalization of the

teaching profession and low academic entry requirements into the teaching profession

among others (Farooq, 2024).This has not only affected teacher professionalism but has

also led to graduates without pre-requisite skills for self-development and human

transformation.

Statement of the problem

There is increasing recognition and acknowledgement that social emotional learning

skills influence learners’ behavior in schools. In developed countries especially in America

and India, research has shown that there is a link between students’ academic

achievement and emotional learning skills whenever it is applied (Guo et al., 2022;

McCuin, 2012; Panayiotou, et al., 2019). Social emotional learning plays a pivotal role in

shaping the future opportunities of today’s learners, therefore schools and teachers

should take it as a serious course of action and solution towards the emerging challenges

that face the young generation (Hassan, Suhid, et al., 2010).

Accordingly, many studies have come up with different and distinct ways of

conceptualizing and defining the meaning of social emotional learning concepts to

address nurturing of student behavior, needs and monitoring progress. Because of the

divergent opinions in regard to the meaning of SEL, its contextualization and cultural

concerns, there is a need to explore and validate the measurement scale of the

hypothesized model before its integration in the curricula (Bhatnagar & Many, 2022).

This is because there is no agreed position among scholars, academicians and education

practitioners on the significant standardized assessment tool and measurement scale of

social emotional learning constructs both at national and international levels, which

makes it difficult to understand and evaluate progress outcomes globally. Also the

context and the purpose under which the SEL validation tool is conducted varies from

one place to another, therefore this gives more room to examine the reliability and

validity in each new setting.

Despite the increased recognition of the relevance of SEL, its application and emerging

validation measurement tool as proposed by CASEL model within diverse educational and

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cultural contexts remain unexplored and validated especially in Uganda, graduates are

not contributing greatly to socio-economic transformation of their societies. This is

attributed to education systems that have not changed to prepare a holistic personality

especially at HEIs level.

For this purpose, this study is designed to examine the current practice in Higher

education institutions with emphasis on the ways that are used to expose learners to

social emotional learning skills, the curriculum and techniques used for its

implementation. Furthermore, the many studies carried out for instance Conley and

Conley (2015) social emotional learning in HEIs, advancing the science and practice of

social and emotional learning: looking back and moving forward Osher, Kidron, and

Weissberg (2016), the evidence base for how we learn supporting students ’ social ,

emotional , and academic development ,Jones & Kahn (2017), Academic self-concept

during the transition to upper secondary school Keyserlingk, Becker, and Jansen, (2019),

social-emotional learning and academic achievement: using causal methods to explore

classroom-level mechanisms Mccormick, Connor, and Mcclowry (2015), investing in

evidence based social and emotional learning companion guide to social and emotional

learning interventions under the every student succeeds act: evidence review Jones and

Kahn (2017), an empirical basis for linking social and emotional learning to academic

performance Panayiotou et al., (2019), basic psychological needs satisfaction at school,

behavioral school engagement, and academic achievement: Longitudinal reciprocal

relations among elementary school students Wang, Tian, and Huebner (2019), Effects of

peer-led training on academic self-efficacy, study strategies, and academic performance

for first-year university students with and without reading difficulties Bergey, Parrila,

Laroche, and Deacon (2019) have not explored and validated students’ perception of SEL

skills among universities in Uganda, thus forming bedrock for designing this study.

Objectives of the study

1. To examined the underlying structure of social emotional learning skills among

universities in Uganda context

2. To validate the measurement model of social emotional learning skills among

universities in Uganda.

3. To develop SEL assessment scale with reasonable psychometric properties to

employ in Ugandan education sector.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to examine and validate the concept of social and

emotional learning among university students in Uganda. This is because many Ugandan

HEIs could be missing this aspect in the teaching and nurturing of future generations.

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Research hypothesis

.Social Emotional learning skills is a multidimensional construct comprising five

interconnected dimensions.

: The measurement model of SEL is multidimensional and valid construct.

Method

Participants and Sample

The study data was obtained from 664 students from both public and private universities.

Majority of the sample were females with 56%, 26% studying in year one, 47.2% aged

between 25-30 The targeted universities were located in different regions of the country

that include; central, Eastern,. Furthermore. The data was analyzed using Exploratory

Factor Analysis (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Full Structural Equation

Modelling (SEM), hence addressing the purpose of the study. The sample size of the

study deemed reasonable to address the SEM parameter estimates.

Instrumentation

Since instrumentation is an important step in developing a research tool, its validity, and

reliability. This study adopted and adapted a survey questionnaire for data collection with

5 sub constructs of SEL construct and 58 item used in previous different studies (Rimm-

kaufman, 2014; Stavsky, 2015; Zhou & Ee, 2014). To arrive at the concrete reliability

margin of error recommended, the researcher analyzed the data using EFA technique

measure each of the individual sub dimension (Jayasinghe-Mudalige,et al., 2012). After

EFA, the measurement model was examined using CFA of structural equation modelling

analysis to establish whether it fits the model (Ary, Jacobs, & Sorensen, 2010; Byrne,

2009; Mann & Mann, 2011).

A five Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree was used to examine

students’ social emotional leaning skills among universities. The reliability index of

Cronbach Alpha for the five subcontracts ranged from an alpha .705 to .803( self-

awareness .706, social-awareness .715, self-management.739 relationship-

management .737 and responsible-decision .803.

Data analysis

The data collected was stored in Excel and later transferred to SPSS version 22 for initial

data cleaning and screening. The Data was transformed to examine the reliability for

each of the sub constructs, and descriptive analysis was conducted to show the

demographic variables of all respondents. EFA was conducted to establish the items that

measure each of the factors for the theory of Social emotional learning(SEL). To measure

the relationship for all the constructs at once, the study employed structural equation

modelling. This is a robust statistical technique that combines regression and

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confirmatory factor analysis into a simultaneous test. Therefore to arrive at plausible

results and at the same time test the theories and conceptual model of SEL using the

Ugandan perspective this technique was deemed at reasonable for data analysis (Ary et

al., 2010; Byrne, 2009).

Results

Underlying Structure of Social Emotional Learning Skills

The descriptive statistics for the dimensionality reduction of the items are shown in Table

1. The maximum score for each of the survey questionnaire items is 5. The hypothesized

mean score for all items was below 2.5. Precisely, the mean score for all the items of

the dimension SEL was less than .55. This implied that respondents had low levels of

SEL. The Cronbach’s alpha deemed reasonable.

Table 1. Factor Loadings, communalities , total variance explained and eigenvalue of the five-

factor dimensions of the social emotional learning skills’ construct.

Factor

Dimension &

indicators of social

emotional learning

Alpha

Mean

Factor

Self-awareness

selfaware1

selfaware2

selfaware3

selfaware4

selfaware5

.706

4.0

4.1

4.0

3.8

3.5

1.051

.964

.982

1.050

1.162

.686

.641

.682

.574

.482

Social-

awareness

Socialawa1

Socialawa2

Socialawa3

Socialawa4

Socialawa5

.715

3.0

2.7

3.1

3.4

2.7

3.1

1.270

1.247

1.305

1.250

377

.688

.770

.774

.600

Self-

Management

selfmagt1

selfmagt2

selfmagt3

selfmagt4

selfmagt5

.739

3.4

3.8

3.7

3.6

3.8

1.27

1.11

1.26

1.27

1.21

.692

.683

.728

.599

.479

Relationship-

Management

relatiosh1

relatiosh2

relatiosh3

relatiosh4

relatiosh5

.737

4.1

3.6

3.5

4.0

1.10

.955

1.18

1.21

1.09

.596

.656

.610

.627

.533

Responsible

decision

making

respon1

respon2

respon3

respon4

respon5

.803

3.9

4.0

3.8

3.7

3.8

1.11

1.03

1.08

1.05

1.10

.569

.683

.728

.712

.784

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To explore the underlying structure of responses to the 25 items of social emotional

learning skills construct among students in HEIs, Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

was conducted. The results from the sample of 664 showed that there was a justification

for using Principal Component due to the degree of inter-correlation among the items

measuring self-reported questionnaire among students. The findings on Kaiser-Meyer-

Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was .902, which was above the threshold of 0.7,

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 4663.045, degree of freedom (df) 300,

sig .000. The correlation matrix produced indicated the best fit inter-correlation whereby

the intercorrelation among the indicators accounted for 52% of the total variance

explained. Oblimin method of axis rotation was used as a maximum likelihood procedure

for the results obtained results.

As shown below the PCA given in the table 2 indicated five factors for SEL construct.

The variance explained per factor reflects that responsible decision making was 6.77, self

-awareness 2.18, self- management 1.46, social awareness 1.25 and relationship

management 1.19. The findings are supported by an earlier study done by Belay and

Dejene (2024), though differed in the number of items for factor number five. In contrary

the study differed with the findings of Tomé-Fernández,et al., (2020) due to the fact that

their study was produced on a scale of six underlying factors of SEL.

From the findings, it is reflected that the factor loadings were statistically significant

and correlated with their items accordingly. The factor loading were of practical

importance due to large scores showed was statistically significant at P=.01. There was

also a strong and significant loadings for the five rotated factor loadings. Thus the findings

reflected a perfectly matched logical grouping of the items. This paved way for further

analysis using CFA. The commonality that loaded on each of the factors showed that the

five factor loading have a significant impact on the construct SEL.

A CFA was conducted using the Analysis of Moment Structure to examine the maximum

likelihood estimates for validating the hypothesized SEL five-factor measurement model(

Miiro,et al., 2016).The findings from the initial analysis as shown in Figure 1 reflect that

the CFA was conducted on a five factor structure measurement model of SEL with 25

items extracted from EFA as reflected in the previous studies(Ross & Tolan, 2018),

though the goodness-of fit measurement model did not meet the requirement fixed

indices comparative fit index (CFI), the relative or normed chi-square (χ2/df), the root

mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), degree of freedom (DF), and Chi-square.

The required indices for fit goodness RMSEA values ≤ .08, CFI values ≥ .90, and χ2/df ≤

5.0(Byrne, 2016) were also examined to arrive at measurement of the study.

To identify the regression coefficient for the error terms were fixed at 1 for the

endogenous variables. In harmony with Amos analysis principles, the latent variables

were represented in circle format, measurement errors as ellipses, and observed

constructs(indicators/items) as rectangles (Byrne, 2016; Farooq, et al., 2017; Ross &

Tolan, 2018). The hypothesized measurement model for SEL was conceptualized by five

constructs inter-correlated double arrows in figures 1 and 2.These include;- social-

awareness, self-management, self-awareness, relationship skills, social responsibility

skills and responsible decision making. From the circles to rectangles are single headed

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arrows that represent the regression paths. These arrows indicate the connection

between sub-construct and their items. The study factor loadings are indicated on the

trajectories and the single-headed arrows from ellipses to rectangles reflect the

measurement error for each item (Silalaiy, 2018; Yong & Pearce, 2013).

Table 1. Eigenvalues and Proportion of Variance explained

Component

Initial Eigenvalues

Extraction Sums of Squared

Loadings

Rotation Sums

of Squared

Loadings

Total

% of

Variance

Cumulati

ve %

Total

% of

Variance

Cumulative

Total

% of

Variance

6.763

27.052

6.763

27.052

2.907

11.628

2.187

8.747

35.800

2.187

8.747

35.800

2.696

10.786

1.461

5.844

41.643

1.461

5.844

41.643

2.500

9.998

1.354

5.418

47.061

1.354

5.418

47.061

2.469

9.874

1.199

4.795

51.856

1.199

4.795

51.856

2.393

9.570

.939

3.754

55.610

.881

3.522

59.133

.812

3.247

62.379

.793

3.172

65.551

.741

2.964

68.515

.693

2.774

71.289

.653

2.612

73.901

.631

2.523

76.424

.625

2.500

78.924

.604

2.414

81.339

.563

2.250

83.589

.546

2.185

85.774

.533

2.133

87.907

.517

2.067

89.974

.494

1.976

91.950

.430

1.721

93.671

.423

1.692

95.363

.402

1.610

96.972

.391

1.562

98.535

.366

1.465

100.000

In Figure 1, the first five-factor hypothesized model with 25 items loaded on their

respective constructs did not show satisfactory goodness- of-fit as mentioned before in

that CFI= .896, Df= 265, (χ2 = 723.618, RMSEA=.052, p < .001; and χ2/df = 2.731.

To attain better goodness-of-fit indices requirements, a re-specified measurement model

analysis was done on the same data though one item (sem5) on the sub-construct self-

management with low loadings of .479 was deleted as shown as in Figure 2 below.

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Figure 1. Confirmatory factor analysis of the hypothesized measurement model of SEL

Figure 2. For re-specified hypothesized measurement model for social emotional learning skill’ construct

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The findings from the re-specified hypothesized measurement in Figure 2 indicate that

CFI= .916, Df= 199, (χ2 = 529.447, RMSEA=.051, p < .001; and χ2/df = 2.661.

SEL Measurement model reliability and validity assessment

Table 3 - Convergent validity for social emotional learning skills construct

Sub construct

Items

Factor

Self-Management

Sem1

.693

Sem2

.715

Sem3

.616

Sem4

.558

Cronbach’s Alpha ≥0.7

.738

Composite reliability

0.74

Average variance explained

0.76

Responsible decision

Making

Resp1

.663

Resp2

.699

Resp3

.719

Resp4

.616

Resp5

.655

Cronbach’s Alpha ≥ 0.7

0.74

Composite reliability

0.88

Average variance explained

0.55

Self-awareness

Sel1

.618

Sel2

.551

Sel3

.661

Sel4

.568

Cronbach’s Alpha ≥ 0.7

0.71

Composite reliability

0.72

Average variance explained

.044

Relationship-

management

Relsh1

.598

Relsh2

.639

Relsh3

.592

Relsh4

.533

Relsh5

.652

Cronbach’s Alpha ≥ 0.7

803

Composite reliability

0.78

Average variance explained

0.44

Social-awareness

Sco2

.673

Soc3

.643

Soc4

.674

Soc5

.520

Cronbach’s Alpha ≥ 0.7

0.76

Composite reliability

0.73

Average variance explained

0.43

Cronbach alpha for 19 items

.847

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Despite the high Cronbach’s alpha (α) of 0.7 (ranging from .715-.803) for all the SEL

sub-constructs to achieve the acceptable measurement model requirements, another

step was taken to establish both construct validity and reliability as shown in table 3

below, the reliability and validity were assessed using composite reliability(CR) and

average variance explained from the Table 3 below showed that CR values exceeded .7

ranging from 0.71-81, thus indicating a good construct reliability. There was a slight

divergence in the items of five multidimensional of the hypothesized model of SEL. This

suggests that the conceptualization and definition of SEL vary from one country to

another(Belay & Dejene, 2024; Ross & Tolan, 2018;). The study findings reflected that

the respondents were above to differentiate the five study subconstructs of SEL as

indicated in Table 3 below.

Social Emotional Learning Psychometric Properties

It is portrayed from figure 2 that the specified model of SEL construct is a unified model

with five latent variables with standardized regression coefficients paths and indicator

items (self-management, social-awareness, responsible decision-making self-awareness,

and , relationship skills,). The results further indicated that standardized coefficient

values were between .43 to .72, reflecting reasonable significant factor loadings at p <

.001(see Table2).

Table 4. Shows AVE for Social Emotional Learning Skills Measurement Model.

Dimension

SelfMagt

0.51

0.53

0.52

0.29

0.48

Respdeci

0.73

0.54

0.42

0.30

0.48

Selfaware

0.72

0.65

0.44

0.30

0.48

Relnshp

0.54

0.55

0.50

0.24

Sociaware

0.69

0.49

0.47

Composite

Reliability

0.74

0.88

0.72

0.78

0.73

Under the diagonal in Table 4 above is the correlation matrix, above the diagonal are the

average variance explained value,. while the shared values variance matrix is above the

diagonal.

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Figure 3. second-order factor analysis of SEL hypothesized model with standardized estimates

From the study results, Figure 3 indicates second-order measurement model of SEL skills

generated through confirmatory factor analysis. The findings reflected significant strong

significant indicators at p <.001 in that responsible decision making value (β = .80),

relationship skills (β = .88), self-awareness scored (β = .81), Social-awareness (β =

.42), and self-management (β = .73). This implies that relationship skills scored the

highest variance explained at 88%, followed by self-awareness scored 81%, responsible

decision making value 80%, self-management 73%, and social-awareness 42% across

universities in Uganda. The findings further revealed that the hypothesis that SEL is a

five structure measurement model is valid and reliable, and its constructs are specifically

and systematically associated with it.

Discussion

The study findings in the tables indicate that there was evidence for convergent validity

because the 70% of the values of the AVE for SEL were above 0.5, representing

satisfactory convergent validity discriminant validity was also realized due to large values

corresponding with shared values (values above the diagonal). The inter-factor

correlation was moderate(Hair, et al.., 2010). This showed that SEL is a multidimensional

construct with inter-related factors but distinct in nature. The data reflects that the study

composite reliability values ranged from 0.72 (self-awareness) to 0.88 (responsible

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181

decision making). This implies that the values were high enough and above the

acceptable values thus providing proof of convergent validity(Lam, 2012)

The consistence of validity and reliability of SEL construct survey tool differs from one

country to another. Therefore it is important for researchers that before using CFA and

full SEM at the same time, an analysis of EFA should always be done first in order to

come up with better factor loadings.

The results from Figure 1 obtained using CFA showed that the hypothesized model of SEL

is a multidimensional construct with five subcontracts, and these did not meet the

standardized goodness-of-fit for using SEM (Awang,at al., 2017). The study further

contributed to the body of knowledge by examining and validating the existing survey

tool however, self-management constructs proved that in the context of Uganda is

measured with four items. This is because some of its items loaded below the required

value scores. The five-factor measurement model is in agreement with earlier studies

like (Chernyshenko,, 2018; Ross & Tolan, 2018; Saxe, 2011).

The study further indicates that SEL measurement model should be implemented based

on context and culture of a given place, this will ease the work of different stakeholders

in the sector of education (CASEL, 2013, 2015). A strong positive correlation among the

five factor and their item indicators was shown by the study findings. This implies that

SEL is holistic in nature due to interconnectedness among the its sub constructs. The

study has added on the advocacy of fostering and integrating SEL in the curricula of

different levels of education in order to prepare a holistic graduate for socio-economic

transformation of their societies ( Hicks, 2012; Kivunja, 2014).

Limitation

The key interest of this study as purported by the author was to examine and validate

the hypothesized theoretical model of SEL, The intention was to have strong factor

loadings for the entire measurement model fit with all its item loadings on the factors.

However,one of the items for self-management sub construct did not meet the standards.

The study was not longitudinal due to high costs that were required, therefore it was

done using a cross-sectional survey design on a particular group of students in the central

region.

Conclusions and Recommendations

This is the first kind of study done in Uganda to validate SEL hypothesized conceptual

model as a measurement model. The study findings provide a robust support for

integration of model in curriculum and management of social emotional skills especially

at HEIs. Though the results were gained from a self- report survey tool, the findings are

applicable across different ages of sample cohorts. A study with mixed methods with

more diverse and large sample of participants across the country is needed to establish

the robustness across age groups of different education levels. Future studies on SEL

have a basis of using this reliable and valid measurement model to examine the

trajectories of the five sub-constructs of SEL, the difference in their meaning, and

function of the entire design.

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HEIs should also train lectures in SEL skills in order to train graduates who are imbued

with skills of self-management and self-awareness to make responsible decisions that

affect their relationship and social responsibility positively.

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