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Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL15 N2, TD3

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

VOL16 N1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325

Editorial. Presentation and Framing – Şefika Şule Erçetin e Luis Tomé – pp. 2-5

ARTICLES

Development of information literacy in history and civic education as a 21st- century

leadership skill - Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor & János Setényi – pp. 6-19

Multicultural Perspectives and Global Leadership in Higher Education - Pusat Pilten &

Gülhiz Pilten – pp. 20-35

Management Styles and Organizational Intelligence. Level of Higher Education

Administrators - Dilek Yörük – pp. 36-51

Digital Tools In Second Language Learning In Higher Education: A Systematic Review Of

Recent Research - Seçkin Esen – pp. 52-63

The European Higher Education Alliances: the challenges of transnational university

cooperation - Concepción Anguita Olmedo – pp. 64-84

Higher Education from an Inclusive Governance Perspective: Expanding the Boundaries

of Social Justice - Nilay Neyişçi – pp. 85-99

Nurturing and Upbringing; the Forgotten Aspect in Curriculum Development and

Implementation at Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) - Miiro Faroq & Baguma K. Grace

– pp. 100-116

Exploring Plasma Leadership in Turkish Universities: A Document-Based Administrative

Perspective - Handan Ege & Şefika Şule Erçetin – pp. 117-132

Globalizing the Indian Higher Education: A Critical Appraisal - Vesselin Popovski & Rajat

Shandilya – pp. 133-149

Internationalization of Higher Education and Public Policy: Advances and Setbacks in the

Strategic Actions for the International Integration of Brazilian Universities - Jackson

Bentes & José Alberto – pp. 150-163

An Examination and Validation of Social And Emotional Learning Skills Among University

Students in Uganda - Miiro Farooq – pp. 164-189

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

EDITORIAL

ŞEFIKA ŞULE ERÇETIN

sefikasule@gmail.com

Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Education at Hacettepe University (Türkiye). In 1991, she

completed her Phd from Division of Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning, and

Economics in Hacettepe University. She has been working as a professor since 2003. She has

worked as visiting scholar in Texas A&M, USA and Lancaster University, UK. In 2021, she

founded Management of Higher Education Division and Master program in Hacettepe University.

Prof. Erçetin has worked in many national and international projects as a member of project

team project coordinator on education of refugees, women, vocational training. Her main

research fields are comparative education policies, research methods, organizational intelligence

and stupidity and wisdom, leadership, migration, fuzzy logic, children at risk, women and peace

studies, quantum leadership, women leadership model. Also, she is the president and founder

member of the International Science Association in Türkiye (ISCASS). She is the editor in chief of

different national and international journals which focuses on leadership and education.

LUIS TOMÉ

ltome@autonoma.pt

Full Professor at Autónoma University of Lisbon, UAL (Portugal), where he is Head for

Internationalization and Director of the Department of International Relations. He is also Director

of the research unit OBSERVARE-Observatory of Foreign Relations, and of Janus.net, e-journal of

international relations. Senior Researcher at the Portuguese Institute of International Relations

(IPRI-Nova). Member of the Thematic Assessment Committee of the Portuguese Agency for

Assessment and Accreditation of Higher Education (A3ES) in the scientific field of Political Science

and International Relations. Professor Luis Tomé has been a visiting professor at La Sapienza

Universitá di Roma–Italy, the University of Macau-China, the Middle East Technical University

(METU) of Ankara- Türkiye, National Defense Institute of East Timor, as also at the Portuguese

Military University Institute (IUM), National Defense Institute (IDN) and Higher Institute of Police

Sciences and Homeland Security (ISCPSI). He has a degree in International Relations from the

Autónoma University of Lisbon (UAL), a Masters in Strategy from the Institute of Social and

Political Sciences (ISCSP) of Lisbon University and a PhD in International Relations from the

Faculty of Economics of University of Coimbra (FEUC).

How to cite this editorial

Erçetin, Şefika Şule & Tomé, Luís (2025). Editorial - Presentation and Framing. Janus.net, e-journal

of international relations. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1 –

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges, June

2025, pp. 2-5. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325ED.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 2-5

Editorial – Şefika Şule Erçetin, Luís Tomé

EDITORIAL

PRESENTATION AND FRAMING

ŞEFIKA ŞULE ERÇETIN

LUIS TOMÉ

In recent decades, the internationalization of higher education has emerged as a central

theme in global academic discourse. As universities and academic institutions around the

world increasingly operate beyond national borders, the need to examine the

implications, practices, and outcomes of internationalization has become both urgent and

complex. Internationalization, in the context of higher education, refers not only to the

mobility of students, faculty, and academic programs, but also to the integration of

international dimensions into curricula, research agendas, institutional strategies, and

campus cultures. It encompasses policies and practices designed to enhance global

engagement, foster intercultural understanding, and prepare graduates to operate in

increasingly interconnected societies. However, internationalization is not a neutral or

universally beneficial process. It reflects broader dynamics of globalization, power

relations, economic inequalities, and cultural negotiations that shape how it is

experienced and implemented across different contexts. Effective leadership in this

context must not only enable global engagement but also prioritize equity, diversity, and

ethical responsiveness to global challenges.

While internationalization remains a cornerstone of higher education reform, it is

increasingly entangled with broader structural challenges that institutions worldwide

must address. What was once predominantly framed by national systems and local

priorities is now significantly influenced by international pressures and transnational

governance frameworks. The rise of global university rankings, cross-border knowledge

economies, international accreditation mechanisms, and digitally mediated academic

mobility has profoundly reshaped both the strategic aspirations and organizational

configurations of universities.

Contemporary higher education operates within a dynamic and often volatile global

landscape shaped by intersecting technological, social, political, and demographic

transformations. In this climate of accelerated change, Artificial Intelligence and digital

transformation are exerting growing influence over pedagogical practices, administrative

processes, and knowledge production. These developments require not only technological

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 2-5

Editorial – Şefika Şule Erçetin, Luís Tomé

adaptation but also conceptual rethinking. Within this framework, the concept of

quantum leadership has emerged—a non-linear, holistic, and adaptive approach aligned

with the complex realities confronting internationally engaged universities.

The expanding international responsibilities of universities—particularly in domains such

as climate change, migration, peace-building, and global citizenship—necessitate a

reexamination of the core missions of higher education. Universities are increasingly

expected to serve as agents of social transformation, embedding internationalization

within broader goals of equity, sustainability, and human development. While these

responsibilities entail complex challenges, they also present compelling opportunities for

fostering intercultural dialogue, enhancing global competencies, and driving societal

innovation on a global scale. Through inclusive governance structures that are

participatory, reflective, and ethically grounded, higher education institutions can

respond to global imperatives while modeling values-based leadership in times of

uncertainty.

This thematic dossier, titled Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and

Challenges, brings together a series of eleven scholarly articles that explore the

multifaceted nature of internationalization in higher education, offering critical insights

into its driving forces, lived realities, and the pressing challenges it entails. It features

contributions that interrogate both the opportunities and tensions inherent in the

internationalization process. Rather than conceptualizing internationalization as a fixed

policy model, this issue examines it as a fluid, context-sensitive process intersecting with

digital transformation, demographic transitions, geopolitical volatility, and institutional

complexity.

By integrating theoretical, empirical, and practice-oriented perspectives, this issue

advances a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of internationalization in a

post-pandemic, AI-mediated, and globally uncertain era. Beyond identifying disruptions

and contradictions, the contributions underscore the resilience, creativity, and

adaptability of higher education institutions. Examples include the proliferation of globally

integrated hybrid programs, enhanced international research collaborations, and the

widespread adoption of learner-centered digital pedagogies. These developments

illustrate the transformative potential of internationalization to stimulate institutional

innovation, nurture global citizenship, and build inclusive academic communities.

The articles compiled in this dossier approach the theme from a variety of disciplinary,

methodological, and geographical perspectives. Indeed, the authors come from diverse

academic fields — ranging from Education Sciences to International Relations, and from

Law to Public Administration — and are affiliated with various higher education

institutions across different countries, including Bulgaria, Brazil, Spain, Hungary, India,

Kazakhstan, Portugal, Türkiye, and Uganda. Together, they aim to contribute to a deeper

understanding of how internationalization unfolds in practice, what it means for students,

educators, and institutions, and how it can be navigated responsibly and ethically.

In bringing together these varied contributions, this dossier does not seek to provide

definitive answers but to open space for critical dialogue. It underscores the importance

of viewing internationalization not as an abstract ideal or a one-size-fits-all strategy, but

as a contested and evolving process that must be examined in context. As institutions

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 16 Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 2-5

Editorial – Şefika Şule Erçetin, Luís Tomé

continue to grapple with shifting geopolitical realities, technological change, and

reconfigurations of academic life, the questions raised in this dossier are more relevant

than ever.

As co-editors of this thematic dossier, we are deeply grateful to all 18 authors who

generously agreed to share their knowledge, experiences, and perspectives through the

eleven articles that follow. Gratitude is also extended to the scientific reviewers, whose

recommendations contributed to further enhancing the quality of the articles, as well as

to the entire editorial team of the esteemed scientific journal Janus.net, which is

responsible for publishing this thematic dossier. To all, our heartfelt thanks for the honor

and privilege of your collaboration in this truly collective and transnational endeavor.

This issue invites scholars, administrators, and policymakers to engage critically and

constructively with the values, structures, and strategies shaping the future of higher

education. The focus extends beyond navigating uncertainty to envisioning and building

sustainable, equitable, and forward-thinking models of global academic engagement. We

invite readers to engage with the articles that follow with an open and critical mindset,

and to reflect on how internationalization can be reimagined in ways that enrich higher

education while advancing global responsibility, equity, and mutual learning.

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:

Experiences and Challenges

June 2025

DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION LITERACY IN HISTORY AND CIVIC

EDUCATION AS A 21ST-CENTURY LEADERSHIP SKILL

ÁRON FEKETE

aron.fekete@mcc.hu

PhD, Mathias Corvinus Collegium (Hungary). Learning Institute, Project Manager

RICHÁRD FODOR

fodor.richard@mcc.hu

Mathias Corvinus Collegium, Learning Institute, Head of Research (Hungary). Pázmány Péter

Catholic University, Lecturer

JÁNOS SETÉNYI

janos.setenyi@mcc.hu

PhD, Mathias Corvinus Collegium, Learning Institute, Director (Hungary)

Abstract

The information revolution of the 21st century brought several significant changes in the field

of education, among many the spread of WEB 2.0, MOOC systems and artificial intelligence

ultimately further blurring the line between the digital-analogue world. In this context history

and civic education have become even more significant, giving information and media literacy

a more prominent role. It should be the role of teacher training institutes to prepare future

educators to tackle challenges and build on new opportunities. The concept of digital

citizenship appears in the literature and curricular development goals, which also implies the

ethical, responsible and safe possession and application of digital literacy and media literacy

competences in both secondary and tertiary education (Erdem et al, 2022). Our study explores

the relationship between media literacy, digital literacy and digital citizenship competences in

the field of history and civic education. During the content analysis of the literature, global

and EU strategy reports, we examined the most important challenges and objectives

formulated in the topic. The results include the increasing role of information and media

literacy since the 2010s, the approaches to citizenship education and a model of the key

concepts in the title in the form of a competence network.

Keywords

Information Literacy, Media Literacy, Civic Education, Digital Pedagogy, Disinformation,

Leadership Skills.

Resumo

A revolução informacional do século XXI provocou transformações profundas no domínio da

educação, entre as quais se destacam a disseminação da Web 2.0, a emergência dos sistemas

de ensino massivo aberto online (MOOC) e o avanço da inteligência artificial, contribuindo

para esbater ainda mais a fronteira entre os mundos digital e analógico. Neste novo

paradigma, as áreas da História e da Educação para a Cidadania assumem uma relevância

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

acrescida, conferindo à literacia informacional e mediática um papel central no

desenvolvimento das competências cívicas dos cidadãos. Por conseguinte, compete às

Instituições de Ensino Superior dotar os futuros professores das ferramentas necessárias para

enfrentarem os desafios e explorarem as oportunidades proporcionadas pelas novas

tecnologias e práticas educativas. O conceito de cidadania digital encontra-se amplamente

representado na literatura especializada, bem como nos objetivos de desenvolvimento

curricular, implicando a aquisição e aplicação ética, responsável e segura das competências

associadas à literacia digital e mediática, tanto no ensino secundário como no ensino superior.

O presente estudo analisa a inter-relação entre literacia mediática, literacia digital e

competências de cidadania digital no âmbito do ensino da História e da Educação para a

Cidadania. Com base na análise de conteúdo da literatura relevante e dos relatórios

estratégicos, tanto a nível global como da União Europeia, identificam-se os principais desafios

e metas delineados nesta área. Os resultados evidenciam, entre outros aspetos, o papel

crescente da literacia informacional e mediática desde a década de 2010, as abordagens

contemporâneas à educação para a cidadania e um modelo conceptual dos temas em estudo,

estruturado sob a forma de uma rede de competências interligadas.

Palavras-chave

Literacia da Informação, Literacia dos Meios de Comunicação Social, Educação Cívica,

Pedagogia Digital, Desinformação, Competências de Liderança.

How to cite this article

Fekete, Áron, Fodor, Richárd & Setényi, János (2025). Development of Information Literacy in

History and Civic Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill. Janus.net, e-journal of international

relations. Thematic Dossier - Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges.

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June 2025, pp. 6-98. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.1.

Article submitted on 7 April 2025 and accepted for publication on 2 May 2025.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION LITERACY IN HISTORY AND

CIVIC EDUCATION AS A 21ST-CENTURY LEADERSHIP SKILL

ÁRON FEKETE

RICHÁRD FODOR

JÁNOS SETÉNYI

Introduction

Over a quarter of a century, the 21st century has witnessed an abundance of

technological innovations that have profoundly impacted both education and society at

large. The digital sphere and various algorithms are not only capable of influencing

elections (e.g., the Cambridge Analytica scandal) or inciting violence against religious

minorities (Harari, 2024), but also significantly facilitate the translation of texts,

plagiarism, and access to information. It is therefore unsurprising that attitudes toward

artificial intelligence among educators and researchers span a broad spectrum—from

techno-optimism to outright rejection (Zompetti et al., 2024). Due to the pace of

technological advancement, some scholars have begun to replace the notion of digital

literacy with that of AI literacy, which emphasizes the critical and reflective use of artificial

intelligence (Long & Magerko, 2020). In this study, however, we do not distinguish

between AI literacy and media literacy, as both encompass the ethical, responsible, and

safe acquisition and application of digital competencies (Erdem et al., 2022).

The COVID-19 pandemic changed global conditions and highlighted the critical role of

leadership in navigating uncertainty, transformation, and chaos. In this new reality,

leadership increasingly demands skills like information literacy, enabling individuals to

access, evaluate, and apply information responsibly amid rapid change. As part of the

essential toolkit for 21st-century digital citizenship, information literacy empowers

leaders to make informed decisions and foster resilient, adaptable communities (Erçetin

& Açıkalın, 2025).

Although students—often referred to as digital natives—are immersed in digital media

daily, they frequently lack the sub-skills essential for responsible and deliberate

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

technology use. For educators, the absence of adequate training often poses a significant

challenge in fostering both their own and their students’ digital competencies. On a more

positive note, recent years have seen a shift toward the integration of digital citizenship

into educational curricula, particularly within the field of civic education. This integration

aims to equip students with fundamental competencies for engaging in the digital sphere,

such as ethics—that is, appropriate, safe, and responsible internet use —information and

media literacy, political and civic participation, and the capacity for critical resistance

(Moonsun, 2016). Accordingly, this paper examines the educational policy objectives and

pedagogical practices that have emerged regarding digital literacy, history education,

and citizenship education, both in Hungary and in international contexts.

Theoretical background

The concept associated with information literacy is now nearly half a century old (Tóth,

2024), and as such, it has undergone numerous revisions over the past decades.

Although several attempts have been made to establish a unified definition, no

universally accepted interpretation has emerged. Nonetheless, the ongoing discourse has

drawn attention to the fundamental aspects of the field (Leaning, 2017). Accordingly,

most authors define the concept as the competent use of technology, information, and

its sources, as well as critical thinking skills (Koltay & Szőke-Milinte, 2020; Fedorov &

Mikhaleva, 2020; Rahim, A. & Indah, M., 2024). These foundational understandings of

information literacy provide a crucial framework for interpreting contemporary

developments in the digital age. As the sociotechnical landscape continues to evolve, it

becomes increasingly important to reassess how these core competencies are applied in

practice. The growing complexity of digital environments—shaped by algorithms, artificial

intelligence, and the proliferation of online content—demands an expanded perspective

on what it means to be information literate in the 21st century.

Information and Media Literacy in European Policy Documents and

Educational Guidelines

Following the turn of the millennium, the growing impact of technological development

on education and the labor market became almost immediately noticeable within the

European Union. One of the first signs of this was that, in 2002, the European Training

Foundation and the European Council assigned the application of information and

communication technologies among the key competences (Bognár, 2002; Szabó, 2023).

From 2003 onward, these changes also began to emerge in the educational systems of

several Central European countries — at that time not yet EU members — including

Hungary. In Hungary, the National Core Curriculum already incorporates digital

competencies to be developed within the subject of history, focusing on skills related to

recognizing, retrieving, and evaluating information (Fekete, 2025).

A significant milestone in this trajectory was the Paris Declaration of 2015, in which

educational actors identified four priority areas for education: (1) fostering social, civic,

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

and intercultural competences; (2) promoting critical thinking and media literacy; (3)

improving the education of disadvantaged children; and (4) promoting intercultural

dialogue (European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, 2016).

The European Council's framework for the development of digital competence,

DigCompEdu, includes information and media literacy among the key competences.

Developed by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission, the

DigCompEdu framework was first introduced in 2013 and updated in 2017 to reflect the

changing needs of European citizens. (Fodor, 2024)

In March 2019, the Second Survey of Schools: ICT in Education was conducted at the

request of the European Commission to examine the use of digital technologies in EU

education systems, based on data from 400 schools per country. As a follow-up to the

2011 study, the longitudinal analysis showed progress in several areas over eight years.

The report also identified a model called ‘Highly equipped and connected classroom’

establishing three scenarios with costs of technological equipment, network and

professional development for educators of EU classrooms (European Commission,

Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, 2019).

The survey identified several key issues, such as the lack of skills of both students and

educators concerning digital content development, the absence of thorough in-service

and pre-service training for teachers, of whom only 12% had a proper ICT course at

university. Analysis of Hungarian data from the survey also highlighted this obstacle.

Following COVID and the distance learning period in Hungary the education government

implemented a reform in teacher training. The new policies brought compulsory courses

and programmes related to both majors of teacher candidates

, alongside general digital

instructional support and information literacy courses introduced. The new programmes

are already present at universities, however, institutions are autonomous in developing

their own approaches and strategies.

One of the most significant outcomes of the EU Commission survey was the lack of

disciplinary models adaptable by teachers (European Commission, Directorate-General

for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, 2019). It is clear that there are

general principles and ideas for digital redefinition of analogue learning (Puentedura,

2013) while pedagogical background is also set for learning and teaching (European

Commission, 2021). On the other hand, both theoretical models and practical methods,

techniques, tasks and platforms of digital learning in separate disciplinary contexts are

still scarce with only handful of explorers in the field of history education (Breakstone et

al, 2021; Cantabrana et al. 2022; Hajdarović, 2023).

Hungarian teacher trainees must choose two majors (e.g. history and a foreign language) which are studied

parallel psychological and education related courses for five years including several field practices organised in

schools.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

Changing role and toolkit of civic education

Although citizenship education has been a foundational element of schooling, the

emergence of the digital citizen marks a contemporary shift in how civic identity is

understood and promoted in educational theory and policy. Since its development in the

17th century, the roles and objectives of citizenship education have gone through

countless stages of development in response to changing challenges in Europe and

Hungary in particular.

The conscious and intentional education of the civic community was reintroduced after

ancient times, the Enlightenment and it was developed further with the formation of

nation-states. It played a prominent role in the enlightened absolutist monarchies of

Central Europe. In Hungary, it appeared in curricula and classrooms as Historical

geography, later with the title of History and Social studies, as Constitutional studies and

as Foundations of our worldview during the period of the communist dictatorship (Kaposi

2019; Jakab, 2019).

Gábor Halász identifies the rediscovery of the need for civic education after the fall of

communism in Central Europe as the interplay of several factors. First, the end of Eastern

European dictatorships and emerging difficulties of young democracies, the phenomena

of globalisation, the acceleration of European integration, and the experience of the

ethnic-nationalist civil war reappearing in Europe (Halász, 2005). The subject of

citizenship education was introduced as a compulsory subject in England in 2002 after a

long process that began in the 1990s, based on the work of the British professor Bernard

Crick (Advisory Group on Citizenship, 1998). Independent thinking, activity, critical, and

objective student attitudes played an emphatic role in the emerging civic competence,

which sees the role of student participation not in the future, but already in the present

(Kaposi, 2019).

Joel Westheimer and Joseph Kahne (2004) identify three distinct stages of citizenship:

the (1) personally responsible citizen, the (2) participatory citizen, and the (3) justice-

oriented citizen. The personally responsible citizen is characterised by adherence to laws

and social norms, personal responsibility within the community, and generally positively

characterised acts such as working, paying taxes, recycling, donating blood, or

volunteering in times of crisis. The participatory citizen goes a step further, engaging

actively in civic life by joining community organisations, initiating projects to support

those in need, or fostering economic development. This model assumes a deeper

understanding of how governmental institutions function. At the highest level of this

framework stands the justice-oriented citizen, who critically examines social, political,

and economic structures. Rather than focusing solely on surface-level problems, this ideal

citizen seeks to understand underlying systemic issues, identify injustices, and engage

with democratic movements aiming for structural change.

Moonsun (2016) also introduces three approaches to citizenship education: (1) traditional

(or national), (2) critical, and (3) digital. The traditional model focuses on clearly defined

social and economic rights and duties, through which individuals become "good citizens"

by conforming to national expectations. The critical model emerged in response to civil

rights movements in the United States, emphasising the development of multicultural

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1

Thematic Dossier

Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges

June 2025, pp. 6-19

Development of Information Literacy in History and Civic

Education as a 21st-Century Leadership Skill

Áron Fekete, Richárd Fodor, János Setényi

and global identities and giving voice to ethnic, linguistic, religious, and cultural

minorities. The third and most recent stage is digital citizenship, which reflects the

transformative impact of digital technologies on civic life. Moonsun (2016) outlines four

core competencies for digital citizens: (1) ethical, safe, and responsible internet use; (2)

information and media literacy; (3) civic and political engagement; (4) critical resistance.

In the framework proposed by Erdem et al. (2022), digital citizenship supports the

higher-order dimensions of citizenship education. Moving beyond earlier models that

focused primarily on normative behaviour, contemporary citizenship now encompasses

cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills as well. Thus, citizenship education is

undergoing a significant transformation. It no longer solely concerns legal and social

responsibilities or conformity to civic norms. Instead, it now incorporates digital

behaviours shaped by the Web 2.0 environment and promotes the development of

interconnected digital competencies.

According to the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), digital

citizenship involves students' ability to recognise the rights, responsibilities, and

opportunities of living, learning, and working in an interconnected digital and analogue

world. It entails acting in safe, legal, and ethical ways (ISTE, 2023). ISTE standards

emphasise that digitally literate students understand the implications of their online

presence, the significance of digital security, and the risks of data collection technologies.

They are equipped to use digital tools ethically, respect intellectual property rights, and

share information responsibly.

Fodor et al. (2023) highlight the diverse nature of both history and citizenship education

in a comparative analysis of national regulatory frameworks. Among 16 European and

Asian countries

all of the European nations have compulsory civic education without

compulsory school leaving examination in the subject. On the other hand, declared

objectives of development vary greatly from country to country. Education for democratic

values and ideas are shared by all analysed curricula, but explicit further goals as

sustainability, and financial knowledge vary. Among the countries of the research only

Checzia, Hungary, Ireland, Austria, China and Turkey highlight digital competence and

information literacy development (Fodor, Tõhn, Máté, 2023).

The COVID pandemic and the unsettling American political events focused global

attention on the threats of misinformation. The European Commission has published a

Digital Educational Action Plan for the period 2021-2027, which aims to support digital

citizenship by developing digital literacy and tackling misinformation.

The main findings of the report include: (1) A significant number of initiatives on this

topic take a technological approach to digital literacy and pay little attention to critical

thinking. (2) Awareness of the role and dangers of the media is still low among teachers

and parents. (3) Information literacy and digital competence development are not

emphasised in the training of teachers in Europe.

Armenia, China, Czechia, England, France, Hungary, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Poland, Scotland,

Slovakia, Turkey.