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FROM ALLIANCE BUILDING TO STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIPS:
A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF DEFENCE DIPLOMACY
FAIQ HASSAN KHALID
frana82@gmail.com
PhD Candidate in the Department of International Relations, University of Karachi (Pakistan). His
research interests include defence diplomacy, foreign policy and related issues in the
global south and north.
NAEEM AHMED
naeem@uok.edu.pk
Associate Professor, Chairman, Department of International Relations, University of Karachi
(Pakistan).
Abstract
Defence diplomacy within the sphere of statecraft is experiencing rapid growth due to the
geopolitical and geo-economic interests of rising power blocs around the world. This paper
aims to provide a comprehensive historical background of significant activities undertaken in
modern defence diplomacy. The central research question explores how the activities in
defence diplomacy have shaped the landscape of international relations. It is found that
defence diplomacy activities like military exchanges, exercises and cooperation with roots in
antiquity, have continuously adapted to shape history and remain relevant in today’s complex
international relations.
Keywords
Defence diplomacy, interoperability, joint military exercise, Defence Attaché, Defence
cooperation agreements.
Resumo
A diplomacia de defesa, no âmbito da esfera do Estado, está a registar um rápido crescimento
devido aos interesses geopolíticos e geoeconómicos dos blocos de potências emergentes em
todo o mundo. O presente artigo tem por objetivo fornecer um contexto histórico abrangente
das atividades significativas realizadas no quadro da diplomacia de defesa moderna. A questão
central da investigação explora a forma como as atividades de diplomacia de defesa moldaram
o panorama das relações internacionais. Verifica-se que estas atividades, como os
intercâmbios militares, os exercícios e a cooperação, com raízes na antiguidade, adaptaram-
se continuamente para moldar a história e continuam a ser relevantes nas complexas relações
internacionais de hoje.
Palavras-chave
Diplomacia da defesa, interoperabilidade, exercício militar conjunto, adido de defesa, acordos
de cooperação no domínio da defesa.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
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How to cite this article
Khalid, Faiq Hassan & Ahmed, Naeem (2024). From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a
Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. VOL 15,
Nº.1, May-October, pp. 3-20. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.15.1.1
Article received on March 14, 2023, and accepted for publication on October 30, 2023.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
5
FROM ALLIANCE BUILDING TO STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIPS:
A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF DEFENCE DIPLOMACY
FAIQ HASSAN KHALID
NAEEM AHMED
1. Introduction
States resort to their traditional diplomacy to achieve foreign policy goals. This traditional
diplomacy carries out its work under some fixed principles, norms, traditions, and laws,
which are recognized by all states. The primary goal of traditional diplomacy includes
peaceful coexistence, conflict prevention, peacemaking efforts and the protection of
economic and trade interests. If states add a few more goals in their foreign policy, such
as security and defence-related matters and support traditional diplomatic staff with one
or more uniformed people, who are associated with the country's defence institutions
and conduct diplomacy, then it will be termed as defence diplomacy. In simple words, it
can be said that the achievement of national foreign policy objectives through the
peaceful employment of defence resources and capabilities in international politics is
considered defence diplomacy (Drab, 2018).
Alliance building is the purposeful and strategic formation of cooperative connections
between two or more nations to achieve common aims or reduce perceived dangers in
the dynamic field of international affairs. Such alliances take many forms, including
formal treaties with specific military obligations and informal understandings based on
shared economic and strategic interests such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
European Union, BRICS, an informal grouping of emerging economies. Security dialogues
and contacts at the highest level, economic prosperity, pursuing strategic goals,
ideological alignments, joint military exercises and signing of treaties are all important
parts of alliance formation. It is this significant motive that alliance-building has become
a key instrument for governments to handle problems and pursue goals in the changing
fabric of international relations. These collaborations are motivated at their heart by a
shared understanding of interests, where states’ interests are being converged on
concerns of security, economic development, or ideological congruence. Alliances, which
are often codified through treaties, usually include a commitment to mutual defence,
ensuring rapid and decisive action against common dangers.
Strategic partnerships also provide a more adaptable framework for collaboration across
broader sectors such as trade, technological advancement, and other important
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
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uncertainties. While alliances prioritize military and security-related cooperation,
partnerships offer a wide range of collaboration encompassing economic, environmental,
and technological areas and allow for a more multifaceted strategy that also leverages
the combined resources of participating states for mutual gain. This complicated interplay
between alliance and partnership enables states to navigate a difficult global landscape
while ensuring both immediate security and pursuing shared prosperity.
As for the origins of the concept of defence diplomacy, according to Koerner Wolfgang,
it originated as a systematic notion after the end of the Cold War, when the British
Ministry of Defence, in the name of security sector reforms, began to help states seceding
from the Soviet Union in 1991 (Koerner, 2006). One goal of this assistance was to have
a peaceful environment of international security.
Although alliance building and strategic partnerships are often seen as critical parts of
defence diplomacy, however, to understand the various dimensions of this relationship,
we argue that specific initiatives and selected key activities performed under the umbrella
of defence diplomacy, need to be examined in historical terms. By doing so, we may
show how their origins extend beyond the defined idea of defence diplomacy itself.
Defence diplomacy can involve a range of goals and activities, so it can be considered a
multitasking process. These activities include military exchanges and training programs,
as well as using military assets to support foreign policy-related matters. Defence
diplomacy also involves using military presence and capabilities to deter potential
adversaries and promote stability in a region (Forster, 2004). The primary goal of defence
diplomacy is to use military resources to support and advance diplomatic goals, rather
than only for military purposes.
To present a historical analysis, we shaped a foundation by creating a purpose-built table
of activities within the scope of defence diplomacy. A historical comparison of the
activities involved has been offered. Hence, the authors suggest a research question:
What is the historical evolution and enduring significance of the top four activities in
defence diplomacy, and how have these activities shaped the landscape of international
relations over time?"
2. Literature Review
The material on defence diplomacy is extensive. But we find no particular writing about
its evolution or its historical context. Most of the writings on defence diplomacy have
discussed either the activities carried out under the realm of defence diplomacy; or the
significance of such activities to attain the foreign policy objectives. The highly cited work
has been presented by Andrew Cottey & Anthony Forster who have mentioned various
activities and described them as military cooperation and assistance. It is also held that
the appointment of a defence attaché, an important part of defence diplomacy, emerged
as part of nineteenth-century European diplomacy. The authors have acknowledged ten
actions, which the countries perform mutually, as defence diplomacy activities which
include; bilateral and multilateral contacts between senior military and civilian defence
officials, the appointment of defence attaches to foreign countries, bilateral defence
cooperation agreements, training of foreign military and civilian defence personnel,
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
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From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
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provision of expertise and advice on the democratic control of armed forces, defence
management and military technical areas, contacts and exchanges between military
personnel and units, and ship visits, placement of military or civilian personnel in partner
countries defence ministries or armed forces, deployment of training teams, provision of
military equipment and other material aid, and bilateral or multilateral military exercises
for training purposes (Forster, 2004). These activities can be carried out by the army,
navy and air force of a state, under the auspices of its Ministry of Defence. Apart from
this, defence cooperation has also been kept in this context and it happens between two
countries.
A different view on defence diplomacy, arguing it as an investment in relationships and
a means to create strategic partnerships, is emphasized by John, notably through military
exercises to foster mutual understanding and military collaboration (Blaxland, 2014). For
this, the author provides an example, of when Thailand showed willingness for Australia’s
support, on East Timor. The author argues that Australia's position on the East Timor
crisis would not have succeeded if it had not been for decades of Australia's cooperation
with Thailand in the shape of exchanges, partnerships, and bilateral military exercises.
Therefore, effects like bilateral and short-term military engagement and cooperation in
aid projects are reasons for strengthening measures through defence diplomacy.
Juan Emilio traces the origins of defence diplomacy to the classic military diplomacy that
has been practised since ancient times and was revived in the Napoleonic era. He notes
that the concept of defence diplomacy remained largely unchanged until the end of the
Cold War, focusing primarily on military relations within the classic military field (Cheyre,
2013). Juan also highlights that the 1990s marked the dawn of a new era in international
affairs, characterized by complex interdependence, the rise of new global actors, and the
emergence of public diplomacy. These developments paved the way for a new conception
of defence diplomacy as an expression of network diplomacy, linking the implementation
of foreign policy objectives to those of the defence sector. Juan underscores the potential
of defence diplomacy to be a valuable instrument of statecraft when managed effectively,
leveraging both soft and hard power dimensions on any given issue.
Gregory considers that defence diplomacy is a strategic use of soft power to integrate
conceptual paradigms. This indicates that states use defence diplomacy to influence other
countries' perceptions of security issues, thereby furthering their strategic objectives. In
addition, he presents a new concept of defence diplomacy based on how states pursue
their interests in the global arena. This improved explanation eliminates the historical
conceptual uncertainty around the term, providing a clearer understanding of how
defence diplomacy functions as an instrument of statecraft (Winger, 2014). The author
claims that the study of defence diplomacy is still in its initial stages, demanding
additional scholarly research to uncover its complex uses and measure its success. This
emphasizes the continued need for more research to fully understand the complexities
of defence diplomacy and its multidimensional role in international relations.
Cooperation to form alliances and create partnerships is a specific part of broader forms
of security cooperation around the world. Its notable structures are the Shangri-La
dialogue, the Rim of the Pacific Exercise (RIMPAC), the annual meeting of defence
ministers of ten ASEAN countries and its dialogue partner countries i.e., ASEAN Defence
Ministers Meetings (ADMM), Western Pacific Naval Symposium (WPNS), small bilateral
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
8
efforts and bilateral military-to-military contacts (Bisley, 2014). The most important
advantages of defence diplomacy, according to the author, are its potential to deliver,
and then it can reduce stress and is helpful in crisis management. Second, it gives the
benefit of improving the flow of information and enhancing mutual understanding of
states' capabilities, interests, and red lines. Third is the ability to improve the strategic
environment by fostering personal connections between senior defence officials through
high levels of trust and joint communication.
In international affairs, diplomacy is how countries advance their national interests. If
diplomacy fails, the same interests are achieved through force. In terms of national
security, diplomacy is a soft power, while the military is a hard power (Leahy, 2014). In
the current rapidly changing international situation, this difference is not so clear today.
This is the reason defence diplomacy is proving to be a beneficial way of achieving
national interests less than conflict.
Table 1
Sr
Activities under the ambit of defence diplomacy
Defence & Military Officials’ Bilateral/multilateral contacts
Defence attaches
Joint military exercises
Defence cooperation agreements, provision of military equipment, MoUs, treatise
Sub Activities
Interoperability among all branches of armed forces
Education and military training
United Nations Peacekeeping operations
Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations, Search and rescue operations
Participation in events organized by military institutions, conferences, parades and
(tattoos, is a new trend and on the rise, the UK termed it cultural defence diplomacy).
Source: Purpose-built table created by the authors during the literature review
It is argued that the activities above, from serial 1 to 4 give a systematic form to defence
diplomacy. These are the basic actions and features through which states conduct mutual
defence diplomacy. Sub-activities are the results and outcomes of the above four
activities. A historical analysis of the top four activities from the above table will be
presented to argue the research question.
3. Defence & Military Officials Bilateral/Multilateral Contacts
Military and defence officials have long engaged in bilateral and multilateral contacts to
achieve diplomatic goals and promote international security. Bilateral contacts refer to
interactions between two countries, while multilateral contacts involve two countries.
Because of such engagements, military and strategic alliances are formed. These are
formal agreements between two or more countries to provide mutual defence against
external threats. Defence and military professionals' bilateral and multilateral
interactions are significant because they facilitate diplomatic communication and
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
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government collaboration. These encounters are critical to defence diplomacy, enhancing
mutual understanding, trust, and strategic partnerships. Bilateral connections also allow
governments to engage in direct discussions, exchange perspectives on security-related
matters, and explore mutually beneficial endeavors. Multilateral contacts, on the other
hand, are frequently held within the context of international forums and alliances, and
they help to build collective policies and actions to address common security challenges
and threats. These activities strengthen military-to-military partnerships and play an
important role in developing larger diplomatic relations.
3.1 Genealogy
Ancient civilizations have a long history of bilateral and multilateral interactions between
armed forces. For instance, city-states like Athens and Sparta, joined forces in Ancient
Greece to coordinate military actions and for mutual defences (Martine, 2013). Athens
and Sparta’s alliance against Persia during the Greco-Persian Wars is a well-known
instance of bilateral cooperation. In Ancient Greece, the Delian League, led by Athens
and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta represented multilateral alliances (Larsen,
1940). Military alliances were also formed between various city-states, tribes, and
kingdoms in ancient Rome, for instance, in the First Macedonian War, 215-205 BCE
(Bunson, 2014). During the Middle Ages, military alliances were formed between feudal
lords and monarchs to defend against invaders and to expand their territories. Military
alliances and interactions between nations have evolved more formally and institutionally
in recent history (Clausewitz, 1950).
In the years leading to World War I, many military alliances between European nations
were formed, including the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. The 20th century saw
the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, which is a
military alliance of several North American and European countries that was formed as a
response to the threat of Soviet expansion during the Cold War. Since its end, NATO has
expanded its mission beyond collective defence to include crisis management operations.
This includes peacekeeping missions, peacebuilding activities and interventions to
prevent or stop conflicts. Since 1999 the Kosovo Force (KFOR) in Kosovo and the
International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan from 2003 to 2014 was a
NATO-led alliance aimed at stabilizing the country and supporting the Afghan government
in building a secure and democratic state (NATO, 2023). While not formal allies, Australia,
New Zealand and the US security treaty (ANZUS) and NATO also collaborate. Beyond
participating in large-scale military exercises like Talisman Sabre and Rim of the Pacific
(RIMPAC), they also share intelligence and develop joint training programs. This
cooperation extends to regional security concerns, especially in the Indo-Pacific.
While the end of the Cold War saw a surge in UN peacekeeping operations, the UN
emerged as a central player in peacekeeping, alongside regional organizations like the
African Union and multilateral alliances like NATO. The UN Mission in South Sudan
(UNMISS) established in 2011 to support and protect civilians in South Sudan and the
UN Interim force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) since 1978 face varied degrees of success,
grappling with challenges. Such peacekeeping efforts are carried out through UN Security
Council resolutions, which play a key role in shaping international security policy as well
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
10
as peacekeeping efforts (UN, 2023). So, it can be assumed that bilateral and multilateral
contacts between military forces have a long history and existed for centuries, but it has
become more formalized and institutionalized in the modern day. North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) and Australia, New Zealand, and United States Security Treaty
(ANZUS) are a few prominent examples.
4. Defence Attaché
A defence attaché is a military officer assigned to a foreign embassy or consulate to
represent their country's defence interests and military capabilities. Defence attachés are
typically responsible for promoting military-to-military relationships and cooperation with
the host country, as well as providing information about the military capabilities and
intentions of their own country. They may also be responsible for coordinating military
exchanges and training programs, and for providing help and support to their country's
military personnel who are stationed abroad (Masland & Radway, 1957). Defence
attachés often work closely with their country's embassy staff and with the military
officials of the host country to meet their goals.
Moreover, he also gathers intelligence while serving as a diplomatic representative of his
country, but as globalization progresses, more complex technology emerges, and
Attaches’ role and scope are also becoming more complex. This role is the name of any
nation's ability to know what kind and how much important information they can get
about another country.
Furthermore, states spend a lot of capital on the training, deployment, etc. of defence
attachés, and this is the reason their performance and capabilities are closely monitored.
It is difficult to estimate the value of the Attaché system, especially in terms of efficiency
when countries are spending their resources on them. One thing is certain many actions
assigned to the defence attachés prove to be beneficial for the achievement of foreign
policy goals. Because of the desire to achieve great power, the acquisition of strategic
intelligence has become very important. Timely assessment of the war capability of
foreign governments or countries is now becoming a guarantee of survival and security
for the country. The reason for this is that at no other time in the history of civilization
did a man have such great abilities to destroy his fellow man as they do today (Vagts,
1967).
4.1 Genealogy
In Roman history, military personnel were used for the special purpose of espionage.
Frontinus (40-103 AD) included espionage as an instruction among other services in the
work of an officer (Erdkamp, 2011). It is also mentioned that when Scipio sent Caius
Lilius to the camp of Syphax under the pretext of the embassy, he took many military
officers with him in the disguise of his domestic servants and gathered expert soldiers.
In this way, the task of appointing generals to diplomatic posts in 17th-century Persia
began so diplomatic reports could be checked. There are many mentions of appointing
Generals as Ambassadors by Napoleon (Freke, 1854). Due to their historically strong
role, most European powers had also employed military officers as foreign
representatives by the mid-nineteenth century. The official nomination and regular
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
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position and name were given in 1857. In the same way, the United States came out of
the period of isolation and in 1888 officially started appointing military attachés
(Kupchan, 2020).
5. Joint Military Exercises: Enhancing Interoperability and International
Relations
It refers to a large-scale activity in which more than one country exercises its military
capabilities under an explicit purpose at a specific location by mutual consent. These are
training exercises that involve military staff and equipment to practice and improve
military skills and capabilities. These exercises can take place at various levels, ranging
from small unit-level training to large-scale and multinational exercises involving the
participation of multiple countries (Clem, 2018). Such exercises have a variety of
objectives, which include improvement in the readiness and capabilities of military forces,
testing of new types of equipment and tactics, and demonstration of military strength to
deter potential adversaries. They are also used to build and strengthen relationships with
allies and partners, and to foster cooperation and interoperability between military forces.
Military exercises can take many forms, including field training exercises, which involve
live-fire ranges and simulated battlefield conditions, and computer-simulated exercises,
which use advanced computer technology to simulate military operations. They also
include a range of activities, such as air, land, and sea drills, as well as cyber and space
operations (Caton, 2018). Joint Military Exercises (JME) are an important part of
maintaining the readiness and effectiveness of military forces and are a critical part of
national defence strategies. They also serve as a signal for military opponents by showing
the level of unity between the forces involved and their ability to coordinate. In this way,
without actual combat, the army gets a good idea of what the effects of a possible war
would be and will the strategy be correct and so on (Levy J. S., 1998). Defence
policymakers get first-hand information on several issues such as scenario preparation,
analysis, training for wartime decisions, the consequences of possible decisions taken
during the war, and mobility can also be reiterated. According to a 2021 study, joint
military exercises conducted within a defined alliance have the potential to deter
adversaries without creating moral hazard (Dylan R. K., 2022). The reverse can also
happen, and it can lead to an increase in conflicts, but this is extremely rare (Dylan R.
K., 2021).
JME’s promote brotherhood, and camaraderie among the forces involved. Along with
expressing the spirit of goodwill, it can also show the soft power, culture, language,
customs and lifestyle of the nation. The professional skills of the staff emerge through
exercises. It is a fact that the effectiveness of any defence equipment can be known only
because of the skill of the person using it. This is the reason for weapons manufacturing
companies and countries, such exercises, where equipment is also tested, are an
advertisement of their advanced technology and equipment. If we talk about the
implications, the subtlest aspects that are part of the war strategy can be decoded and
many things can be revealed (Sukin, 2020).
Military exercises often involve the participation of multiple countries and military forces,
which lets them practice and improve their ability to work together and coordinate their
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, Nº. 1 (May 2024 October 2024), pp. 3-20
From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
Faiq Hassan Khalid, Naeem Ahmed
12
efforts. This is important for making sure military forces can effectively run together in
multinational operations. Similarly, military exercises help to build and strengthen
relationships between countries, particularly when they involve the contribution of
multiple nations. This can foster greater cooperation and understanding between military
forces, and help to promote regional stability and security. Another important feature of
JME is deterrence. It is argued that military exercises are an important tool for improving
the readiness and capabilities of military forces and for building and strengthening
relationships with allies and partners.
5.1 Genealogy
The history of military exercises can be traced back to earlier civilizations. For instance,
Greek city-states like Athens and Sparta engaged in regular phalanx training in ancient
Greece to practice battle and test out new tactics and techniques (Martin, 2013). This
involved synchronized marches, manoeuvres, and weapon drills which helped to improve
discipline, cohesion and effectiveness in battle. To increase cooperation and
interoperability, the Roman military conducted joint exercises with allied tribes and
kingdoms in antiquity (Southern, 2007). To increase their armies' readiness and
coordination, feudal lords and kings also remained engaged in combined military drills
during the Middle Ages, the medieval warfare often involved the combined forces of
multiple lords and kings. These forces held regular “war games” and tournaments which
served as military training.
Persia has a rich and ancient military history, with training procedures evolving.
Achaemenid army (550-330 BCE) relied largely on mounted archers called Aspeis and
Dastana, who were trained in mounted archery, riding and battle tactics (Archer & Ferris,
2002). Foot troops, sometimes recruited from conquered lands were trained in spear and
swordsmanship, shield formations and marching drills. Persian soldiers were known for
their strict discipline and steadfast loyalty to the king. Strict obedience, physical exercise
and shared meals were used in training to establish these ideals.
6. Defence Cooperation Agreements
The Defence Cooperation Agreements (DCAs) are formal agreements between countries
that set a framework for military cooperation and collaboration. These agreements cover
a wide range of activities, including the exchange of military personnel and equipment,
joint training and exercises, sharing military technology and information, alliance against
common threats and military assistance. The DCAs help states in the achievement of
several important foreign policy objectives which include, strengthening military
relationships, improvement of military capabilities, enhancing interoperability and
promoting regional stability (Kinne, 2018).
The DCAs also help to improve the capabilities and readiness of military forces which is
important for developing countries, as they have limited financial and other resources
and need to rely on external support to modernize and improve their defence capabilities.
In the same way, DCAs let military forces of different countries work together effectively
by improving their ability to run together in an environment other than war. This is also
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From Alliance Building to Strategic Partnerships: a Historical Analysis of Defence Diplomacy
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very important for developing countries that intend to participate in peacekeeping or
other international missions under the auspices of the United Nations or any other formal
international coalition.
In recent years, DCAs have become an efficient tool among states to address their
common defence threats, border problems and internal security challenges, such as
terrorism, piracy, and other transnational maritime threats. Developing countries are
already vulnerable to these threats and benefit from this cooperation with other countries
to address them. The opportunities for collaboration and innovation help military forces
of states to learn from each other and share best practices and access to new markets
and technologies, providing the opportunity to countries willing to share or sell military
equipment and technology as part of the agreement (Swedish Defence research agency,
2019).
Defence cooperation agreements are also useful for economic gains as well. These have
the potential to attract investment and support from other states which may include the
coproduction of military equipment, arsenals, and training, again this is crucial for
developing countries without many