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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 17 Nº.1, TD3
Thematic Dossier – Geopolitics of Anxiety: Ideology,
Identity, and (Un)Bordering in Contemporary Europe and Asia
September 2026
99
SOUTH KOREA’S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY TOWARD PORTUGAL: THE CURRENT
STATE AND FUTURE IMPLICATIONS
TONNY DIAN EFFENDI
tonny@umm.ac.id
Tonny Dian Effendi is an Assistant Professor at the Department of International Relations,
University of Muhammadiyah Malang (Indonesia). He was a visiting research fellow at the Japan
Institute of International Affairs (JIIA), Japan, the Institute of International Relations (IIR)-
National Cheng Chi University, Taiwan, as well as a visiting scholar at the Department of
International Relations and Public Administration, Universidade do Minho, Portugal.
HOYOON JUNG
hoyoon@pknu.ac.kr
Hoyoon Jung is an Associate Professor in the Division of International and Area Studies and
serves as the Associate Dean of the College of Humanities and Social Sciences at Pukyong
National University (South Korea). He earned his Ph.D. in Political Science from the University of
Hawaii at Manoa.
Abstract
This study examines South Korea’s public diplomacy toward Portugal as cross-regional middle-
power cooperation. Despite ties since 1961, research on this relationship remains limited.
Hallyu has bridged cultural gaps, fostering participatory fandom among Portuguese youth
through K-pop and K-dramas. State-led projection tools—King Sejong Institutes and K-pop
events—built initial attractiveness. The 2023 agreements on triangular cooperation and
sustainable development highlight Portugal’s CPLP gateway role and shared interests in
renewables and green technologies. However, the projection-dominant model limits
reciprocity, normative depth, and institutional ties, hindering conversion of cultural capital
into sustained leverage. The study contrasts projection with advocacy/relational paradigms
and proposes a shift toward the latter. Recommendations include reframing Hallyu for joint
cultural projects and fan campaigns; partnering with Camões, I.P. for dual-language
programs; and focusing on green governance and triangular cooperation in CPLP regions.
Short-term actions emphasize workshops and fandom initiatives; medium- to long-term
strategies prioritize networks and monitoring. Challenges like resource asymmetries are
addressed through listening and reciprocity. This relational model aligns with pragmatic
diplomacy focused on national interests and autonomy, offering a template for diversifying
outreach into Southern Europe and the Lusophone world. It strengthens middle-power
convening and bridging capacities. The Korea–Portugal case shows projection excels at initial
engagement, but relational approaches are key for lasting strategic value. Future research
should explore its application to other under-studied bilateral contexts.
Keywords
Hallyu, Public Diplomacy, Relational Public Diplomacy, Korea-Portugal Relations, Middle-Power
Diplomacy.
Resumo
Este estudo aborda a diplomacia pública da Coreia do Sul em relação a Portugal como uma
cooperação inter-regional entre potências médias. Apesar das relações que remontam a 1961,
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 17 Nº. 1, TD 3
Thematic Dossier – Geopolitics of Anxiety: Ideology, Identity, and (Un)Bordering in
Contemporary Europe and Asia
September 2026, pp. 99-115
South Korea’s Public Diplomacy Toward Portugal: The Current State and Future Implications
Tonny Dian Effendi, Hoyoon Jung
100
a investigação sobre esta relação continua a ser limitada. O Hallyu colmatou as diferenças
culturais, promovendo uma cultura de fãs participativa entre a juventude portuguesa através
do K-pop e das séries coreanas. As ferramentas de projeção lideradas pelo Estado — os
Institutos Rei Sejong e os eventos de K-pop — criaram a atratividade inicial. Os acordos de
2023 sobre cooperação triangular e desenvolvimento sustentável destacam o papel de
Portugal como porta de entrada para a CPLP e os interesses comuns em energias renováveis
e tecnologias verdes. No entanto, o modelo dominado pela projeção limita a reciprocidade, a
profundidade normativa e os laços institucionais, dificultando a conversão do capital cultural
em influência sustentada. O estudo contrasta a projeção com os paradigmas de defesa de
causas e de relações e propõe uma mudança no sentido destes últimos. As recomendações
incluem reformular a Hallyu para projetos culturais conjuntos e campanhas de fãs; estabelecer
parcerias com o Instituto Camões, I.P. para programas bilingues; e centrar-se na governação
verde e na cooperação triangular nas regiões da CPLP. As ações a curto prazo dão ênfase a
workshops e iniciativas de fãs; as estratégias a médio e longo prazo dão prioridade às redes
e ao acompanhamento. Desafios como as assimetrias de recursos são abordados através da
escuta e da reciprocidade. Este modelo relacional alinha-se com uma diplomacia pragmática
centrada nos interesses nacionais e na autonomia, oferecendo um modelo para diversificar o
alcance na Europa do Sul e no mundo lusófono. Reforça as capacidades de convocação e de
aproximação das potências médias. O caso Coreia–Portugal mostra que a projeção se destaca
no envolvimento inicial, mas as abordagens relacionais são fundamentais para um valor
estratégico duradouro. Investigação futura deverá explorar a sua aplicação a outros contextos
bilaterais pouco estudados.
Palavras-chave
Hallyu, Diplomacia Pública, Diplomacia Pública Relacional, Relações Coreia-Portugal,
Diplomacia das Potências Médias.
How to cite this article
Effendi, Tonny Dian & Jung, Hoyoon (2026). South Korea’s Public Diplomacy Toward Portugal: The
Current State and Future Implications. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic
Dossier – Geopolitics of Anxiety: Ideology, Identity, and (Un)Bordering in Contemporary Europe
and Asia, VOL. 17 Nº. 1, TD3, September 2026, pp. 99-115. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-
7251.DT0626.6
Article submitted on March 30, 2026 and accepted on May 10, 2026.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 17 Nº. 1, TD 3
Thematic Dossier – Geopolitics of Anxiety: Ideology, Identity, and (Un)Bordering in
Contemporary Europe and Asia
September 2026, pp. 99-115
South Korea’s Public Diplomacy Toward Portugal: The Current State and Future Implications
Tonny Dian Effendi, Hoyoon Jung
101
SOUTH KOREA’S PUBLIC DIPLOMACY TOWARD PORTUGAL:
THE CURRENT STATE AND FUTURE IMPLICATIONS
TONNY DIAN EFFENDI
HOYOON JUNG
Introduction
The 21st-century diplomacy has seen a marked diffusion of power, where traditional hard
power mechanisms are increasingly complemented by soft power, which can be defined
as the capacity to shape preferences through attraction rather than coercion (Nye, 2004).
For middle powers such as South Korea, public diplomacy has become a vital instrument
for enhancing influence in a multipolar world, allowing them to bridge great-power
rivalries and contribute to global norms (Cooper, 1997). In this context, the bilateral
relationship with Portugal provides a compelling case of cross-regional alignment
between two middle powers, driven by historical legacies, cultural exchanges, and
emerging strategic imperatives.
Formal diplomatic ties between South Korea and Portugal were established on April 15,
1961, even though their interactions trace back to early modern encounters. Portuguese
cartographers, including Manuel Godinho de Erédia in 1615, depicted the sea east of the
Korean Peninsula as “Mar Coria” (Sea of Korea), offering one of the earliest European
recognitions of Korean sovereignty and geography (Jung, 2025). This historical narrative
of mutual discovery serves as a foundation for contemporary legitimacy, distinguishing
the relationship from many of Korea’s other Western partnerships.
The 60th anniversary in 2021 marked a renewed phase, amplified by the global reach of
the Korean Wave (Hallyu), which has significantly boosted cultural familiarity in Portugal.
A pivotal development occurred in April 2023, when Portuguese Prime Minister António
Costa visited Seoul—the first such trip in 39 years—resulting in agreements on triangular
cooperation in third countries, sustainable development, and university partnerships
(Government of Portugal, 2023). These accords highlighted shared interests in future
industries, including semiconductors, electric vehicle batteries, and renewable energy,
while underscoring Portugal’s role as a gateway to the Community of Portuguese
Language Countries (CPLP) (Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023).
Despite growing trade and Hallyu’s popularity, the partnership remains imbalanced.
South Korea’s public diplomacy toward Portugal is predominantly projection-oriented,
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September 2026, pp. 99-115
South Korea’s Public Diplomacy Toward Portugal: The Current State and Future Implications
Tonny Dian Effendi, Hoyoon Jung
102
emphasizing cultural exports like K-pop festivals and language programs through the
King Sejong Institutes. This approach, while effective in building attractiveness, falls
short in fostering normative depth or institutional ties compared to Portugal’s networked
diplomacy via the Camões - Instituto da Cooperação e da Língua, I.P (hereafter Camões,
I.P.). The core issue lies in the limitations of the projection model, which transmits
national identity unilaterally without cultivating shared values.
In contrast, advocacy public diplomacy promotes consensus on global norms through
relational engagement, aligning with middle-power strategies for network power. South
Korea necessitates this shift, particularly in leveraging Portugal for broader influence in
Lusophone regions. In this context, this study evaluates the current projection-dominant
approach, analyzes Portugal’s strategic value, and proposes an advocacy model
integrating cultural assets with shared norms in green governance and development
cooperation.
Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Literature Review
Despite the sixty-year diplomatic history between the Republic of Korea and the
Portuguese Republic, academic scholarship dedicated to this bilateral relationship
remains scarce and fragmented, usually appearing as a minor component within broader
studies of Portuguese studies in Korea or of Korea’s soft power and public diplomacy in
Europe (Jung, 2023; Ban, 2020). A recent mapping of the trends of Portuguese studies
in South Korea shows that research spans politics, economics, society, and culture, but
it also notes that bilateral diplomacy and public diplomacy between Korea and Portugal
remain largely unexplored as primary objects of analysis (Jung, 2023). One of the few
dedicated accounts of the relationship offers a descriptive overview of diplomatic
milestones and sectoral cooperation, however it does not theorize the ties as a middle-
power partnership or as a case of cross-regional public diplomacy (Jung, 2025).
Parallel literatures on Hallyu and Korean soft power highlight how popular culture has
been incorporated into state strategies for nation branding and middle power diplomacy,
while also raising concerns that a state-driven export model can limit reciprocity and
relational engagement (Ban, 2020; Oliveira, 2025). Despite the geographical distance,
the cultural proximity between South Korea and Portugal has been significantly narrowed
by the transnational flow of Hallyu, academic scrutiny of this specific bilateral reception
remains insufficient. Recent scholarship has begun to explore K-pop fandom in Portugal,
identifying it not merely as passive consumption but as a site of active identity
construction and “participatory culture” (Guerra & Sousa, 2021). Studies indicate that
Portuguese fans engage in complex processes of “transnational proximity,” where shared
socio-cultural experiences—such as youth precarity and digital nativism—bridge the gap
with Korean cultural products, challenging traditional notions of cultural distance (Jin,
2023). However, a critical gap persists in the literature regarding the conversion of this
cultural capital into diplomatic instruments; while the Korea Foundation (2023) reports a
surge in European Hallyu fans to about 13.2 million with continued growth noted in
subsequent analyses, research specifically linking this fandom to the public diplomacy
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September 2026, pp. 99-115
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103
objectives of the South Korean state in Southern Europe is sparse. This disconnect
highlights the need for further inquiry into how the soft power generated by Hallyu can
be effectively operationalized to support broader strategic goals within the specific
context of Korea-Portugal relations.
In this context, this article is original in three respects. First, it takes Korea–Portugal
relations themselves, rather than “Europe” in general, as the main unit of analysis,
thereby connecting Portuguese studies in Korea with scholarship on Korea’s middle power
and public diplomacy. Second, it conceptualizes South Korea’s public diplomacy toward
Portugal as predominantly projection‑oriented and explicitly juxtaposes it with Portugal’s
more networked Camões, I.P. model, providing empirical leverage for debates on
projection versus advocacy public diplomacy and on relational soft power. Third, it
foregrounds Portugal’s role as a gateway to Lusophone networks and explores how
Korean cultural assets can be embedded in advocacy‑based cooperation on development,
thus extending both public diplomacy and middle‑power diplomacy debates into a
bilaterally and regionally under‑researched arena.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this study draws primarily from the scholarship on public
diplomacy, particularly the distinction between projection-oriented approaches and
advocacy/relational models that emphasize dialogue, mutuality, long-term relationship-
building, and network collaboration. This distinction is essential for analyzing South
Korea’s current public diplomacy toward Portugal, which remains predominantly
projection-dominant through unilateral cultural exports (e.g., K-pop events, King Sejong
Institutes), while highlighting the potential for a shift toward advocacy-based strategies
that foster shared norms and institutional ties.
Joseph Nye’s foundational concept of soft power—the ability to shape preferences
through attraction rather than coercion—can effectively explain much of the discussion
on middle-power public diplomacy (Nye, 2004). For middle powers like South Korea, soft
power serves as a key instrument to enhance influence in a multipolar world,
complementing hard power limitations and enabling contributions to global norms and
bridging functions. Public diplomacy operationalizes soft power by engaging foreign
publics directly, but its effectiveness depends on the communication logic employed.
Traditional public diplomacy often relied on projection models, characterized by one-way
information dissemination, mass-media campaigns, and efforts to “sell” a national image
or identity unilaterally (Cull, 2009; Melissen, 2005). This approach aligns with state-
driven cultural export strategies, which can build initial attractiveness but frequently limit
reciprocity, genuine engagement, and normative depth—issues particularly relevant to
Korea's Hallyu-focused efforts (Ban, 2020; Oliveira, 2025). In contrast, the “new public
diplomacy” or relational turn advocates a paradigm shift toward dialogue, listening,
mutuality, and collaborative networks (Melissen, 2005; Zaharna et al., 2013). Rhonda
Zaharna and colleagues emphasize relational, networked, and collaborative approaches,
where public diplomacy moves from information control to skilled relationship
management, building sustainable connections among state and non-state actors
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VOL. 17 Nº. 1, TD 3
Thematic Dossier – Geopolitics of Anxiety: Ideology, Identity, and (Un)Bordering in
Contemporary Europe and Asia
September 2026, pp. 99-115
South Korea’s Public Diplomacy Toward Portugal: The Current State and Future Implications
Tonny Dian Effendi, Hoyoon Jung
104
through shared values, co-creation, and connective mindshifts (Zaharna et al., 2013).
This relational paradigm prioritizes advocacy—promoting consensus on global issues via
mutual engagement—over mere projection, enabling middle powers to cultivate network
power through convening capabilities and partnerships (Hafner-Burton et al., 2009;
Sohn, 2012).
Portugal’s public diplomacy exemplifies networked and relational elements through
institutions like the Camões, I.P., which promotes language, culture, and cooperation via
decentralized, inter-societal ties and long-term relational engagement across Lusophone
networks as reflected in Portugal's broader diplomatic practices. This contrasts with
Korea’s more centralized, projection-heavy model, providing empirical space to evaluate
the limitations of unilateral strategies and the advantages of advocacy-oriented shifts.
In the Korea–Portugal context, a relational advocacy model would integrate Hallyu-
generated cultural capital with collaborative initiatives on shared global norms, such as
green governance, sustainable development, and triangular cooperation in CPLP regions.
This approach aligns with middle-power behavioral traits, which can facilitate
multilateralism, norm entrepreneurship, and bridging cross-regional divides while
addressing literature gaps in converting fandom-driven proximity into diplomatic scene.
South Korea could transform its public diplomacy from image projection to normative co-
construction, enhancing strategic depth in Lusophone spheres and supporting broader
goals by foregrounding mutuality and networked engagement.
These theoretical examinations thus can thus effectively illuminate projection versus
advocacy or relational logics to assess the current state of Korea’s efforts toward Portugal
and propose pathways for more effective, reciprocal public diplomacy.
Current State of South Korea’s Public Diplomacy toward Portugal
Historical and Institutional Overview of Bilateral Public Diplomacy
Early interactions were limited. Portuguese cartographic records provide the earliest
evidence of Korean awareness in Europe, with Francisco Rodrigues’ 1513 map containing
one of the first references to Korea as “Coria,” followed by consistent mentions of “Core”
in subsequent maps by Bartolomeu Velho (1561) and Manuel Godinho de Erédia (1613).
Fernão Mendes Pinto’s disputed account of reaching the Han River in 1542 suggests
possible direct contact, though historians continue to debate its authenticity (Embassy of
the Republic of Korea in Portugal, 2017).
Diplomatic channels facilitated more deliberate exchanges by the early 17th century,
most notably through Joseon envoy Jeong Du-won’s 1631 encounter with Portuguese
missionary Rodrigues during a mission to Ming China (Park, 1999; Ahn, 2009). Serving
as a papal interpreter fluent in Japanese, Rodrigues presented Jeong with transformative
Western technologies including a telescope, firearms, and a mechanical clock—items
virtually unknown in Joseon society (Park, 1999). As Park (1999) notes, Rodrigues’ gifts
represented one of the earliest documented instances of European scientific instruments
reaching the Korean peninsula. These technology transfers, though sporadic and
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geographically indirect, established vital conduits for European knowledge dissemination
that would underpin more formalized relations in subsequent eras (Jung, 2025).
The bilateral public diplomacy between South Korea and Portugal, while rooted in formal
diplomatic ties established in 1961, has evolved through a combination of institutional
mechanisms and cultural exchanges, reflecting both countries’ middle-power aspirations
in a multipolar global order. Public diplomacy efforts gained momentum in the 21st
Century, aligning with South Korea’s broader middle-power strategy that emphasizes soft
power to complement its economic influence (Sohn, 2012; Lee, 2016). Key institutions
driving this include South Korea’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) and the Korea
Foundation, which coordinate cultural and educational outreach, and Portugal’s Camões,
I.P., which promotes Portuguese soft power through decentralized language and cultural
programs.
Institutionally, South Korea’s projection-oriented approach is evident in the
establishment of the King Sejong Institute in Lisbon in 2013, which focuses on Korean
language education and cultural immersion as tools for building attractiveness. This
mirrors broader Korean public diplomacy trends, where language institutes serve as
gateways for soft power dissemination, similar to efforts in other European contexts (Cho
et al., 2022). By 2023, the institute had expanded its activities to include online and in-
person courses, reaching over 500 students annually, with programs emphasizing
practical communication and cultural events like K-pop workshops (King Sejong Institute
Foundation, 2024).
In contrast, Portugal’s Camões, I.P., created in 1992, exemplifies a relational model,
fostering inter-societal ties across Lusophone networks in Africa, Asia, and Latin America
through cooperative language programs and development initiatives. This networked
approach prioritizes mutuality and long-term engagement. The 2023 bilateral
agreements, signed during Portuguese Prime Minister António Costa’s visit to Seoul,
marked a pivotal institutional milestone, encompassing triangular cooperation in third
countries (e.g., Lusophone Africa), sustainable development, and university partnerships
(Government of Portugal, 2023). These accords build on earlier milestones like the 2021
60th anniversary celebrations, which included joint seminars and cultural exchanges.
This institutional overview highlights how bilateral public diplomacy has shifted from
sporadic exchanges to structured cooperation. However, it remains dominated by
projection logics on the Korean side, limiting deeper relational integration.
Hallyu as a Core Projection Tool in Portugal
Hallyu, or the Korean Wave, serves as the central axis of South Korea's projection-
oriented public diplomacy in Portugal, facilitating cultural proximity despite geographical
distance through popular media like K-pop and K-dramas. Scholarly examinations reveal
that Hallyu has narrowed cultural gaps by appealing to shared socio-cultural experiences
among Portuguese youth, such as precarity and digital nativism (Jin, 2023). In Portugal,
K-pop fandom has grown from niche communities in the early 2010s to a participatory
culture involving active identity construction, as evidenced by fan-led events and
memorabilia practices (Guerra & Sousa, 2021). The Korea Foundation’s 2023 Global
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Thematic Dossier – Geopolitics of Anxiety: Ideology, Identity, and (Un)Bordering in
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South Korea’s Public Diplomacy Toward Portugal: The Current State and Future Implications
Tonny Dian Effendi, Hoyoon Jung
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Hallyu Status report indicates a surge in European fans to approximately 13.2 million,
with Portugal contributing through increased consumption of K-content via platforms like
Netflix and Spotify (Korea Foundation, 2023). Further evidence comes from ethnographic
investigations that document how Portuguese K-pop enthusiasts build and sustain robust
online communities. These spaces go well beyond casual enjoyment of music and drama;
they become platforms for active cultural advocacy, where fans promote Korean artists,
share knowledge about Korean society, and even organize grassroots initiatives that raise
awareness of Korean culture among broader Portuguese circles (Guerra & Sousa, 2021).
Projection strategies are often operationalized through state-supported initiatives, such
as K-pop festivals and collaborations with local institutions. For instance, the King Sejong
Institute in Lisbon integrates Hallyu elements into language curricula, using K-dramas
for vocabulary building and cultural immersion, which aligns with South Korea’s broader
soft power export model (Ban, 2020). As discussed earlier, existing studies continuously
emphasize how transnational proximity, bridging cultural distances via digital media, has
enabled Portuguese fans to engage in complex identity processes, challenging traditional
notions of passive consumption (Jin, 2023; Abd-Rahim, 2019).
Nevertheless, despite these notable achievements, Hallyu’s function within Portugal
continues to operate in a largely one-directional manner. State institutions such as the
Korea Foundation provide substantial financial and organizational support for promotional
campaigns, artist visits, and content distribution, yet there is little corresponding inflow
of Portuguese cultural elements into Korea or balanced mutual exchange (Oliveira,
2025). Consequently, while this projection mechanism successfully strengthens South
Korea’s national image, associating the country with innovation, youth appeal, and
emotional resonance, it ultimately proves insufficient in transforming accumulated
cultural capital into enduring and substantive diplomatic influence across Southern
Europe.
Limitations and Imbalances in the Current Projection Model
South Korea’s projection-oriented public diplomacy toward Portugal reveals deep
structural imbalances, particularly in reciprocity, normative alignment, and institutional
symmetry, all of which collectively undermine the potential for long-term relational ties
and genuine bilateral trust-building. Scholarly evaluations of Korean public diplomacy
strategies consistently emphasize that while cultural exports such as Hallyu content,
language programs, and promotional events generate considerable initial appeal and
positive national branding, they frequently perpetuate a predominantly one-way
communicative structure. This model tends to prioritize dissemination of Korean
narratives over genuine mutual exchanges that could enrich bilateral understanding,
foster interpersonal connections, or create shared interpretive frameworks between the
two societies (Heo & Roehrig, 2021). In the specific Portuguese context, this limitation
manifests most clearly in the overwhelming predominance of Korean-led initiatives—
ranging from the King Sejong Institute’s language courses and cultural workshops to K-
pop festivals and artist promotion tours—which place far greater emphasis on exporting
and disseminating Korean cultural products than on collaborative norm development,
joint agenda-setting, or co-creation of meaning.
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Further critiques in the literature argue that projection models are intrinsically
constrained in their ability to cultivate authentic shared values and normative
convergence. Because they are fundamentally oriented toward unilateral broadcasting of
a carefully curated national identity and attractive image, they often fail to adequately
respond to or integrate the partner country’s unique historical, cultural, and diplomatic
priorities. In Portugal’s case, this is particularly evident in the mismatch with Portugal’s
longstanding commitment to Lusophone multilateralism through the Community of
Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). Portugal has built its diplomatic identity around
decentralized, networked cooperation across Africa, Asia, and Latin America,
emphasizing language promotion, inter-societal ties, and regional solidarity—elements
that are not meaningfully engaged or mirrored in South Korea’s current approach (Park,
2020). This fundamental asymmetry becomes visible when comparing operational styles:
South Korea’s highly centralized, state-directed mechanisms (coordinated primarily
through MOFA and the Korea Foundation) stand in sharp contrast to Portugal’s more
decentralized, inter-societal, and long-term relational networks exemplified by the
Camões, I.P.. Such differences may inadvertently exacerbate imbalances in institutional
commitment, resource allocation, engagement depth, and sustainability of outcomes
(Melissen & Sohn, 2015).
A concrete illustration of these limitations can be found in the implementation of the 2023
bilateral agreements on triangular cooperation in third countries, sustainable
development, and university partnerships. While these pacts theoretically represent
promising entry points for more advocacy-oriented and relational interactions, their
practical execution has remained largely Korean-centric in both planning and resource
mobilization. There has been insufficient incorporation of Portuguese perspectives,
expertise, or leadership—particularly concerning sustainable development initiatives
within CPLP member states in Lusophone Africa, where Portugal possesses decades of
accumulated diplomatic capital and local knowledge.
Moreover, the heavy reliance on state-orchestrated cultural exports carries the additional
risk of overlooking or underestimating detailed and sophisticated local socio-cultural
dynamics in Portugal. These include generational attitudes toward globalization,
persistent youth precarity in the labor market, preferences for participatory and
horizontal cultural interactions over top-down dissemination, and a strong historical
consciousness tied to Portugal’s colonial and post-colonial legacy. When such contextual
factors are not adequately considered, interactions tend to remain surface-level and
episodic, ultimately failing to evolve into meaningful diplomatic resource capable of
addressing shared global challenges such as climate resilience, digital inclusion, or
equitable development cooperation. In other words, these structural shortcomings and
operational asymmetries highlight a pressing need for a fundamental paradigm shift
toward more relational and advocacy-focused public diplomacy strategies.
Empirical Evaluations
An empirical evaluation of South Korea’s public diplomacy efforts directed at Portugal
presents a nuanced picture: substantial and measurable cultural gains coexist with
persistent and significant deficiencies in converting those gains into comprehensive,
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durable, and strategically meaningful diplomatic outcomes. Drawing on survey-based and
perception-oriented studies across Europe, Korean cultural outreach, particularly Hallyu-
driven initiatives, has demonstrably improved general favorability ratings, brand
perception, and overall goodwill toward South Korea among European publics. However,
when it comes to more normative, policy-oriented, and institutionally embedded
domains, the results remain inconsistent, showing only limited advancements in
perceptions of bilateral cooperation depth, shared strategic alignment, or mutual
commitment to global norms (Cho et al., 2023).
Within the Portuguese context specifically, quantitative indicators derived from
comprehensive global Hallyu tracking reports and audience consumption data show
fundamental increases in fan participation, content streaming volumes, social media
engagement, and event attendance. These correlate positively with favorable economic
perceptions of Korea, such as views of Korea as a leading source of innovative
technologies, creative industries, and high-quality entertainment. Nevertheless,
accompanying qualitative insights from fan studies, stakeholder interviews, and
diplomatic observation consistently point to stagnant or slow progress in building political
confidence, establishing durable institutional interconnections, or developing sustained
advocacy networks that extend meaningfully beyond the entertainment and youth
subcultural spheres (Silva, 2021; Passeira, 2024).
Other studies further illuminate this argument. Projection-centric activities—such as
large-scale cultural festivals, sponsored artist promotions, and state-funded language
education—excel at generating short-term boosts in attractiveness and brand recall. In
contrast, they consistently underperform in sustaining longer-term indicators, including
collaborative policy undertakings, joint advocacy on international norms, deepened inter-
institutional linkages, or grassroots support for foreign policy priorities (Jayasundara,
2023; Nye, 2004; British Council, 2022). This shortfall is largely attributable to ongoing
imbalances in mutual engagement, dialogue, and listening mechanisms.
Comparative empirical evidence, when placed alongside South Korea’s public diplomacy
experiences in other European countries (e.g., Hargtai et al., 2023), further underscores
Portugal’s relative underutilization as a strategic entry point into the broader Lusophone
world. Despite the presence of a growing and highly engaged K-pop and K-drama fandom
base, there is still little evidence that this cultural enthusiasm has evolved into active,
organized backing for broader diplomatic agendas, such as advocacy on global priorities
in green governance, renewable energy transitions, or multilateral development
cooperation across CPLP regions.
In summary, these empirical observations confirmed the projection model’s clear
strengths in laying foundational cultural groundwork, achieving high visibility, and
generating positive affective responses in the target society. At the same time, however,
they expose critical vulnerabilities in reciprocity, normative depth, institutional
conversion, and strategic sustainability. The evidence strongly suggests that relational-
oriented enhancements—emphasizing dialogue, co-creation, mutual listening, and
networked collaboration—are essential to realizing more balanced, enduring, and
geopolitically impactful diplomatic leverage in the evolving Korea-Portugal relationship.
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Future Implications and Recommendations: Toward a Relational Model
The empirical and theoretical analysis in the preceding chapters reveals that South
Korea’s public diplomacy toward Portugal, while successful in generating cultural
attractiveness through projection mechanisms like Hallyu exports and King Sejong
programs, remains constrained by unidirectional flows, limited reciprocity, and
insufficient normative depth. To address these gaps and maximize the bilateral
relationship’s potential, this chapter proposes a deliberate shift toward an advocacy-
based relational model. This approach, grounded in dialogue, mutual listening, and
networked collaboration, would transform Hallyu from a tool of image projection into a
platform for shared value-building and long-term partnership. Such a reorientation aligns
closely with South Korea’s middle-power identity, enabling proactive norm
entrepreneurship and contributions to global public goods in an increasingly multipolar
world (Brookings Institution, 2023) and the current administration’s emphasis on
pragmatic diplomacy centered on national interests, strategic autonomy, and balanced
engagement in a complex global environment. The sections below elaborate on Portugal’s
strategic significance, outline concrete pathways for relational transformation, provide
actionable policy recommendations with phased implementation considerations, and
explore broader implications for Korean public diplomacy.
Strategic Value of Portugal for Korea’s Middle Power Diplomacy
Portugal remains a high-value partner for South Korea’s middle-power diplomacy, largely
because of its pivotal role in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP).
This multilateral framework unites nine member states—Portugal, Brazil, Angola,
Mozambique, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Equatorial Guinea, and
Timor-Leste—with a combined population of over 270 million spread across four
continents (Ministério das Relações Exteriores, 2017). The CPLP provides a distinctive
platform for linguistic, cultural, economic, and developmental cooperation, granting
access to dynamic emerging markets in Africa and Latin America where South Korea’s
expertise in technology, renewables, and digital infrastructure can complement Portugal’s
established diplomatic networks and normative influence.
From a theoretical perspective in middle-power diplomacy literature, Portugal’s position
within the CPLP enables South Korea to engage in triangular cooperation modalities that
amplify leverage without direct confrontation with major powers. Triangular
arrangements—typically involving a traditional donor (or facilitator like Portugal), an
emerging provider (South Korea), and beneficiary countries in the Global South—
facilitate knowledge-sharing, capacity-building, and sustainable development initiatives
in Lusophone regions, particularly Africa. Such frameworks allow middle powers to pursue
niche roles in norm diffusion and multilateralism, emphasizing mutual benefit and
horizontal partnerships over hierarchical aid models (Abdenur & Fonseca, 2013). For
South Korea, this opens paths to extend its developmental area into under-served
Lusophone markets, where shared linguistic and historical ties facilitate smoother entry
and greater local ownership compared to bilateral approaches alone. Recent analyses of
South-South and triangular cooperation highlight how these mechanisms enhance
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Tonny Dian Effendi, Hoyoon Jung
110
agenda-setting power for non-Western actors (OECD, 2025), enabling South Korea to
contribute to global public goods like climate-resilient infrastructure and inclusive growth
while diversifying its strategic partnerships.
In the context of the current South Korean administration’s pragmatic diplomacy—
prioritizing national interests, strategic autonomy, and balanced relations amid global
uncertainties—Portugal offers a strategic entry point for cross-regional engagement
without over-reliance on any single great power (Chatham House, 2025). By pursuing
relational engagement with Portugal, South Korea can diversify its diplomatic footprint
beyond traditional Indo-Pacific and Euro-Atlantic alignments, fostering bridging functions
between developed and developing regions while advancing practical cooperation on
shared priorities such as climate resilience and inclusive growth.
Shift to Relational and Advocacy Public Diplomacy
To transcend the limitations of unilateral projection, South Korea should reframe Hallyu
as a relational and connective resource that promotes dialogue and co-creation. Concrete
measures could include joint cultural fusion projects that merge Korean and Portuguese
elements. For instance, collaborative performances blending K-pop with Fado or
Portuguese folk traditions, or participatory campaigns where Portuguese K-pop fans team
up with Korean creators to address themes like youth empowerment, environmental
awareness, or cultural heritage. These efforts would capitalize on existing participatory
fandom in Portugal—evident in online communities and fan-led activities—to evolve
beyond consumption into mutual storytelling, emotional resonance, and shared identity-
building (Guerra & Sousa, 2021).
A pivotal axis of this shift would be structured partnerships with Portugal’s Camões, I.P.,
which models decentralized, networked relational diplomacy through its extensive global
centers for language and culture. Possible collaborations include co-developed dual-
language programs (Korean-Portuguese), joint artist residencies, teacher exchanges,
and efforts to integrate Korean language and cultural education into Lusophone systems
in Brazil, Angola, and other CPLP nations—utilizing Camões’ established infrastructure for
scalable, reciprocal impact.
Normative priorities should guide these initiatives: center shared global agendas such as
green governance through joint projects on renewable energy innovation, EV supply-
chain sustainability, and climate adaptation tailored to Lusophone developing countries.
Triangular development cooperation in CPLP regions could incorporate Hallyu-driven
youth engagement—such as fan-led sustainability challenges—with policy advocacy on
UN Sustainable Development Goals, thereby linking cultural appeal to substantive
normative consensus and practical cooperation (Kim, 2021). This relational framework,
rooted in listening, feedback loops, and sustained relationship management, would
elevate public diplomacy from brand promotion to genuine co-construction of values and
outcomes (Zaharna et al., 2013).
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Policy Recommendations and Broader Implications for Bilateral Ties
Short-term actions should prioritize realistic, low-barrier initiatives that build immediate
trust and demonstrate tangible mutual value. Key measures include deepening
operational linkages between the King Sejong Institute in Lisbon and Camões, I.P.
language/cultural centers through co-hosted workshops on language pedagogy, virtual
exchange programs for learners and educators, and the development of shared digital
platforms (e.g., bilingual apps or online resource hubs) that facilitate cross-cultural
content sharing and joint curriculum design. These collaborations can start with pilot
programs focused on youth audiences, leveraging existing Hallyu interest in Portugal to
introduce Portuguese language and culture elements alongside Korean studies (Camões,
I.P., n.d.; Jung, 2024).
Concurrently, initiate targeted Hallyu fandom advocacy campaigns that connect popular
culture participation to issue-based messaging. For example, themed social media
challenges, fan-organized virtual events, or community-driven initiatives promoting
bilateral commitments to green and sustainable development goals. Evidence from recent
cases shows that K-pop fan communities can mobilize rapidly and shape corporate and
public agendas, including around climate-related campaigns. Such efforts are cost-
effective and can quickly generate positive feedback loops in public perceptions when
designed around two-way engagement rather than one-way projection.
Medium- to long-term strategies should focus on institutionalizing and expanding these
relational foundations into sustainable, multi-layered networks. Establish formalized
multi-stakeholder platforms that bring together NGOs, universities, businesses, civil
society organizations, and youth groups from both countries to co-design and implement
programs across green technology innovation, triangular development cooperation in
Lusophone regions, and ongoing cultural exchange. Triangular cooperation guidance
emphasizes co-design, local ownership, and demand-driven partnerships, while also
noting the need to manage inherent power asymmetries among partners (OECD and
Islamic Development Bank, 2025).
Potential challenges must be proactively managed to ensure a successful transition.
Bureaucratic resistance to shifting from familiar projection habits, differing priorities in
Lusophone engagement, or uneven enthusiasm among non-state actors can be mitigated
through structured “listening” mechanisms such as regular consultations with Portuguese
stakeholders, fan communities, and civil society groups, consistent with relational public
diplomacy approaches that prioritize sustained relationship-building and mutuality.
Finally, adopting a relational model with Portugal could serve as a template for
broadening South Korea’s public diplomacy outreach into Southern Europe and the wider
Lusophone world, especially by combining cultural attraction with network-building
across diverse stakeholders. This diversification can reduce vulnerability to geopolitical
volatility by widening partnerships and strengthening adaptive, network-based influence
strategies associated with middle-power diplomacy. At the same time, integrating Hallyu
into agenda-driven cooperation should be approached carefully to avoid “silo” effects
between cultural diplomacy and development objectives.
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Conclusion
This study examined South Korea’s public diplomacy toward Portugal through the lens of
projection-oriented versus advocacy-based relational models, revealing both
achievements and persistent limitations in the bilateral relationship. Despite geographical
distance and historical asymmetries, Hallyu has successfully narrowed cultural gaps,
fostering participatory fandom and transnational proximity among Portuguese youth (Jin,
2023; Guerra & Sousa, 2021). State-supported initiatives, including King Sejong Institute
programs and promotional events, have built initial attractiveness and contributed to
growing familiarity with Korean culture. The 2023 bilateral agreements on triangular
cooperation, sustainable development, and university partnerships further signal shared
strategic interests in future-oriented sectors like renewables and advanced technologies.
However, the current projection-dominant approach—characterized by unidirectional
cultural exports and centralized state coordination—falls short in reciprocity, normative
depth, and institutional integration. This limits the conversion of cultural capital into
sustained diplomacy, particularly in leveraging Portugal’s gateway role within the CPLP
network. The relational turn proposed here offers a viable path forward. By repositioning
Hallyu as a connective tool for joint projects, forging partnerships with institutions like
the Camões I.P., and centering shared norms in green governance and triangular
cooperation, South Korea can cultivate more equitable and resilient ties.
Under the current administration’s pragmatic diplomacy, the relational model aligns well
with a focus on practical outcomes and diversity. Short-term trust-building measures,
such as joint workshops and fandom advocacy campaigns, can generate immediate
momentum, while medium- to long-term network institutionalization and monitoring
frameworks ensure sustainability. Addressing challenges like resource asymmetries
through proactive listening and phased reciprocity will be essential to success. Ultimately,
deepening relational public diplomacy with Portugal holds broader significance for South
Korea as a middle power. It provides a scalable template for expanding outreach into
Southern Europe and the Lusophone world, diversifying diplomatic engagement beyond
traditional alignments and enhancing adaptability in a multipolar world.
This bilateral case highlights a key insight for middle-power public diplomacy: while
projection excels at initial outreach, relational approaches are indispensable for
converting attractiveness into enduring strategic value. Future research could extend this
framework to other under-explored partnerships, testing its applicability across diverse
cultural and geopolitical contexts.
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