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Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

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NOTES AND RELECTIONS

THE IMPACT OF SMALL STATES ON INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS: THE

POWER OF KAZAKHSTAN IN THE UNITED NATIONS DECISIONS

MURAT DEDEOĞLU

muratmurat9961@gmail.com

Master’s student in International Relations at Karadeniz Technical University (Turkey). He

conducted his master’s thesis research at the Autonomous University of Lisbon within the scope

of the Erasmus Student Mobility Programme in 2024.His academic interests include EU–Türkiye

relations, migration policies, and international political economy. He continues his education and

academic studies at Karadeniz Technical University

Introduction

We see that small states are generally not effective in international relations and power

struggles. From past to present, big states have directed international relations and

problems, but some features and positions of small states from other states have made

them countries with privileges and influence in some areas. As we examined in the article,

Kazakhstan is an example of such countries. Kazakhstan used its experience and

knowledge of nuclear weapons remaining in the Soviet era to limit and control these

weapons. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, although Kazakhstan had a large number

of nuclear weapons, It left them completely on its own will. For more than thirty years,

Kazakhstan has played an active role in various organizations and initiatives, especially

the United Nations, on the limitation and control of nuclear weapons, and has been both

a supporter and a pioneering country. The findings we have obtained at the end of the

research show that small states can also be an powerful and influential country in

international relations, thanks to the features that distinguish them from other countries

in some issues.

For centuries, the leadership of the great-superpowers and their conflicts of interest have

always been the main focus on the international scene. Small states, on the other hand,

generally tried to provide their own security by acting jointly with one or more of the big

states or to indirectly influence by keeping good relations. However, especially with the

end of the 20th century and the 21st century, it has been seen that small states have a

say and influence in international relations by following certain policies and stages. In

this regard, he can cite Sweden's influence in the European Union in establishing

restrictions on the Green Environment and on chemicals that harm its forests and lakes.

(Kronsell, 2002) Kazakhstan, which was one of the states that declared its independence

with the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War, has always been one

of the leading or supporting countries in the limitation of nuclear power since then. The

article analyzes the period from Kazakhstan's declaration of independence in 1991 up to

2018. It specifically examines Kazakhstan's proactive stance and influential role in

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international relations, particularly in the domain of nuclear disarmament. The discussion

underscores Kazakhstan's significant contributions within the United Nations and other

global platforms, showcasing how its policies and initiatives have shaped discussions and

decisions regarding nuclear weapons control. The article provides a comprehensive

overview of Kazakhstan's strategic efforts and achievements in this critical area over

nearly three decades. Since a plan, action or idea does not constantly emerge every year

and every month, it was deemed more appropriate to examine it within such a period.

Due to its Soviet heritage, Kazakhstan had the opportunity to emerge as a new nuclear

power in the international arena. However, the founding President of Kazakhstan thought

that this could be the beginning of many problems. Moreover, the administration of

independent Kazakhstan would not have wanted to acquire such power, despite popular

objections, which had suffered over the years from nuclear tests. The Kazakh people had

suffered a great deal from nuclear tests over the years. Indeed, the central location of

the Soviet nuclear tests was the territory of Kazakhstan. From 1947 to 1991, 456 tests

were carried out on the territory of Kazakhstan, mainly at the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test

Site. Of these nuclear explosions, 30 were detonated above ground, 86 in the air and

340 underground. These tests are nuclear tests with hundreds of times more devastating

effects than the bombs dropped on Japan at the end of the Second World War. These

nuclear tests are the main reason for some of the ongoing environmental problems and

low birth rates since the establishment of Kazakhstan. As a result, after calculating the

profit and loss, the founding President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev decided to

give up nuclear weapons. Kazakhstan not only gave up on nuclear weapons, but later

became one of the leading countries in nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation.

(Yermilov, 2006)

Nursultan Nazarbayev, who took a leading role in nuclear disarmament, made great

contributions to Kazakhstan's becoming an important central country in Asia, and its

acceptance as a mediator and a respected country in international politics. At the event

held on June 18, 2009 to mark the 20th anniversary of the cessation of nuclear tests,

Nazarbayev proposed to declare August 29 as the day of cessation of nuclear weapons

all over the world. As a result of long negotiations, it was presented to the First

Committee of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly as a draft resolution on August

29, International Day for Combating Nuclear Weapons Testing, as a joint proposal of 26

states, including Kazakhstan. The proposal was unanimously adopted at the 64th session

of the UN General Assembly on 2 December 2009. The decision was presented by

Kazakhstan in commemoration of the closure of the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site on

August 29, 1991. Adopted by the UN General Assembly, this resolution specifically calls

for raising awareness of the harmful effects of nuclear weapon test explosions or other

nuclear explosions, and for stopping them as one of the means to achieve the goal of a

nuclear weapons-free world. (Demirtürk, 2020)

It is stated that the closure of the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site on August 29, 1991

was a symbolic decision for both Kazakhstan and the international community, and the

said decision inspired the signing of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

in 1996. In the case of Kazakhstan, Nazarbayev has been nominated several times for

the Nobel Peace Prize. In 2017, Alyn Ware, Director of the Peace Science and Research

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Institute in Switzerland, nominated Kazakhstan President Nazarbayev for the Nobel

Peace Prize for his efforts in nuclear disarmament. (Aliyeva, 2017)

A brief overview of structuring lines of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy

about nuclear disarmament

Kazakhstan's emergence as a global advocate for nuclear disarmament is rooted in its

painful past as the primary testing ground for Soviet nuclear weapons. From 1947 to

1991, the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site witnessed 456 nuclear tests, leaving a

devastating legacy of environmental degradation and health risks for the Kazakh people.

In 1991, under the pioneering leadership of President Nursultan Nazarbayev, Kazakhstan

decided to close the Semipalatinsk test site and declared August 29 as the International

Day Against Nuclear Tests. President Nazarbayev's decision to renounce nuclear weapons

positioned Kazakhstan as a key player in advancing global disarmament efforts.

Kazakhstan's initiatives have significantly influenced the progress of non-proliferation

measures at the United Nations. For instance, Kazakhstan played a crucial role in the

adoption of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996 and has been

actively working towards its universalization. Kazakhstan's efforts have been recognized

and supported at the international level. The adoption of August 29 as the International

Day Against Nuclear Tests by the UN General Assembly, proposed by Kazakhstan, is a

significant step demonstrating Kazakhstan's diplomatic influence. Additionally, President

Nazarbayev's nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize signifies the global acknowledgment

of Kazakhstan's leadership in nuclear disarmament. Kazakhstan advances its

disarmament agenda through strategic partnerships and multilateral platforms.

Collaborations with international organizations such as the International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA) and regional initiatives like the Central Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone

underscore Kazakhstan's commitment to regional security and global disarmament.

Looking ahead, Kazakhstan continues to strengthen its role in global disarmament

efforts. Challenges such as opposition from nuclear-armed states and geopolitical

complexities persist. However, Kazakhstan's proactive stance, supported by scientific

expertise and diplomatic competence, positions it as a strong advocate for a nuclear-free

world. In sum, Kazakhstan's foreign policy on nuclear issues at the UN is shaped by its

historical responsibilities, strategic vision, and proactive diplomacy. By advocating for

disarmament, promoting dialogue, and strengthening international cooperation,

Kazakhstan continues to shape the global agenda on nuclear security and disarmament.

How can a Small State impact on the United Nations Agenda

The Nuclear Weapons Ban Treaty, approved by the UN General Assembly on July 7, 2017,

is one of Kazakhstan's most important diplomatic achievements. Because this agreement

was boycotted by the nuclear powers in the UN such as the USA, Russia, China, France

and the UK. However, the agreement was accepted with the approval of 122 countries.

It is stated that although it does not have any sanction or binding feature, it is aimed to

abolish nuclear weapons in the future. It constitutes one of the most valuable examples

that small states can have an impact in international relations despite the objections of

large states. (Kimball, 2022) We can say that the biggest factors in Kazakhstan's ability

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in the Unıted Natıons Decısıons

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to have this effect are undoubtedly the fact that it is a member of the United Nations,

and that it has been damaged by nuclear tests in the past and banned them in its own

country, and its efforts to limit and ban it globally.

Based on all these issues, we will examine the impact of Kazakhstan on the United

Nations' policies on the restriction and prohibition of Nuclear Weapons by listing them

under four headings. These; (1) Reputation and expectation on behavior, (2)

Expertise and knowledge as an important resources in the environmental policy

process, (3) The importance of national policies as examples of success, and (4)

Successful coordination of national interest.

Reputation: Kazakhstan as a Forerunner State in Prohibition of Nuclear

Weapons and Tests Issues

Caution is required when making causal links between reputation and behavior because

they are subjective and interpretive. While we proceed carefully on this issue, we will

come to the conclusion that the work done by the United Nations member states due to

Kazakhstan's attitude is positively interpreted. In international relations, previous past

experiences, historical events, negotiations, previous attitudes and behaviors determine

the conditions and future of the environment between the sides. The sides hold talks

taking into account their previous attitudes. We will defend the reputation it has earned

for the commitments it has made and fulfilled in work on nuclear disarmament and

limitation of nuclear testing in Kazakhstan. So much so that Kazakhstan has taken an

active role in international negotiations, cooperation and organizations since 1991, when

it gained its independence. On August 29, 1991, with a historical decree of the Founding

President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev, it was decided to close the Semey

(Semipalatinsk) Nuclear Test Site, one of the largest nuclear test sites in the world. Other

countries followed, which ended the work of their nuclear test sites, and as a result, the

adoption of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996 paved the way.

(Report, 2022) 29 August, which is a historical day, was accepted as the "Day of

Combating Nuclear Weapons Testing" by the decision of the United Nations (UN). This

year, the world celebrates the tenth anniversary of the adoption of the day in question.

Thanks to the Founding President Nursultan Nazarbayev, Kazakhstan has emerged from

the status of the world's fourth nuclear weapons arsenal and quickly became one of the

leading countries in nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. (Ashimov, 2020) Thanks

to all these political and diplomatic activities, it has the reputation of being an "activist

and "pioneer" on nuclear disarmament and its limitation.

Many policy makers, heads of international organizations, country leaders, in the

negotiations on nuclear disarmament, say that Kazakhstan's international initiatives

provide them with a great advantage and assistance in the work done in the United

Nations and other organizations. For example, ex-UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon,

who visited the Semipalatinsk test site in April 2010, called on the world to stop nuclear

testing, exemplary for the country's international visibility. In his speech at the

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Leaders' Summit in 2010,

Moon used the following statements: "The President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan

Nazarbayev, stopped the Semipalatinsk tests thanks to his distinguished visionary

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leadership. Kazakhstan, which was once a center for nuclear armament, has now set an

example to the whole world and the countries in the region as a nuclear-free zone.

Kazakhstan's performance shows that reputation and past relations in international

relations-studies support the suggestion that it can become important resources for small

states and show their effects. (Halper, 2010)

The importance expertise and knowledge

The need for experts on nuclear disarmament comes to the fore and the studies to be

carried out on this subject are based on expert opinion. What we commonly refer to as

nuclear weapons and power concerns are highly complex and detailed issues that often

require input from technical and scientific experts. In this regard, Kazakhstan has been

training both diplomats and scientists on nuclear weapons and disarmament for 30 years.

It is one of the leading countries in terms of Uranium, which is the basic building block

of nuclear power, it also acts cautiously on uranium. With the decision to disarm,

Kazakhstan has also cleared the Central Asian region from possible dangers. In this

context, with the agreement signed on September 8, 2006, five Central Asian countries

created a Nuclear Weapons Free Zone in the region. Kazakhstan's founding President

Nazarbayev succeeded in making this issue an effective tool of Kazakhstan's original

foreign policy and still maintains its advantageous position today. On August 27, 2015,

Kazakhstan and the International Atomic Energy Agency signed an agreement to

establish an Enriched Uranium Bank in Kazakhstan to provide fuel supply in this area.

The opening of the said organization took place on August 29, 2017 at the Ulba Metallurgy

Factory with the participation of Nursultan Nazarbayev. According to the International

Atomic Energy Agency, a nuclear fuel bank could only be established in a country that

did not have nuclear weapons. Kazakhstan has already built this trust with the work it

has carried out since 1991. This proposal envisaged that all countries wishing to benefit

from nuclear energy would be able to obtain energy safely and legitimately from a single

center. According to this, any state that wants to develop nuclear energy for peaceful

purposes will be able to apply to Kazakhstan for the uranium fuel it needs if it has

problems with its other resources. As a matter of fact, Kazakhstan has 12 percent of the

world's uranium resources and managed to produce 43 percent of the world's uranium

in 2019. The state company Kazatomprom operates in the world's legitimate uranium

production area, with operations in six states. (Oxford Analytica, 2017)

Scientific knowledge about nuclear power and weapons, that is, what is required to

become a nuclear power, materials to be used, what elements and minerals are required,

what are their chemical compositions, what are their dangers and advantages are

essential. At the same time, a good knowledge of cost-benefit analysis and determination

of financial instruments should be obtained while choosing policy, economic equipment

and technology. With these considerations in mind, Kazakhstan has a broader level of

national expertise than any other non-nuclear-powered country, and has more extensive

experience in the abolition and prevention of nuclear weapons than any other United

Nations member state. Similarly, Kazakhstani diplomats play an active role in decision-

making processes, especially in institutions such as the United Nations General Assembly

and International Atomic Energy. Despite the objections of the member states of the UN

Security Council, we see the great role played by Kazakhstan in the success of the

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General Assembly to pass a resolution. As can be seen, Kazakhstan's knowledge,

experience and expertise on nuclear disarmament and limitation are at a sufficient level

both in the context of foreign policy and in the context of trained manpower. In this case,

it enables Kazakhstan to act as both a playmaker and a shaper in the resolutions and

resolutions to be taken at the United Nations General Assembly. We can conclude that

the experience gained from scientific sources, policies, and certain technologies can be

an important factor in determining the United Nations agenda. Such knowledge and

experience can serve as a source of legitimating influence in UN work or can be used as

a supportive-reinforcing element in actual negotiations.

National policies as examples of what can be done

Another way of influencing United Nations policies and resolutions is to try to "upload"

national policy to the United Nations level. Up-loading can be described as a way of

successfully convincing the United Nations General Assembly, its members, and

commissions on the relevant issue that a particular national policy should be accepted

and adopted as a standard or a policy applicable in all member states. (Kronsell, 2002)

Although the term "uploading" can be used within the European Union or other

institutions and organizations, it is also valid at the United Nations (UN) level and refers

to efforts to transfer national policies to the UN level or to be accepted as UN standards

or policies. This article is also expressed in terms of influencing the United Nations and

its policies. This process involves efforts by a member country or group of countries to

support or promote policies and standards proposed for adoption by the UN Secretary-

General or other bodies of the UN. National policies of member states can be influential

in the preparation of UN policy recommendations, especially on issues of global

importance such as the environment, human rights and health. For example, a country's

environmental policy or health policy may form the basis for policies of UN agencies such

as the UN Environment Program (UNEP) or the World Health Organization (WHO). At the

UN level, the "uploading" strategy is used to increase the influence of member countries

or non-governmental organizations in UN policy processes and to ensure the adoption of

national policies at the global level. This process aims to have national policies accepted

as the UN's general policy framework or international standards. For example,

Kazakhstan's abandonment of nuclear weapons and its national policies in this direction

have affected the United Nations policy and the attitude of the member states. As a case

study, in the statement made by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan regarding

the decision adopted at the General Assembly in March 2018, it was emphasized that it

actively participated in the creation and adoption of the agreement. It was also stated

that the main provisions of the agreement meet the principled stance of Kazakhstan,

which has come a long way in transforming from the fourth most nuclear-armed country

in the world to the leading country in the field of nuclear disarmament and non-

proliferation. (TRT Avaz, 2018)

Conducting various national studies on nuclear disarmament and its delimitation issues

can serve as important background information. This type of expertise is not only used

to influence real negotiations or help persuade opposing countries, but can also provide

important inputs and contributions to the strategy and policies of the United Nations. It

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is clear that the strategies proposed in studies on nuclear weapons control and the

expertise in institutions produce important factual information, experiences and

calculations that can be used successfully both in the United Nations General Assembly

and its relevant bodies, and when discussing and planning policies. When countries like

Kazakhstan attribute the steps they have taken regarding nuclear disarmament in

domestic politics to the United Nations strategies, they get more successful results and

gains than other small countries. Most importantly, they can affect United Nations

resolutions, strategies and plans, and prevent complications that may occur in the

process of translating and implementing United Nations resolutions and directives into

their own domestic law and strategies. However, all this "uploading" and plans can also

have undesirable disadvantages. “Policy mismatches” can create problems of compliance

and acceptance with United Nations measures and strategies. Such mismatches arise

because they are incompatibilities between different policy styles and instruments in

different member states. National studies focusing on common opinion and adapting to

the common attitudes and views of the United Nations and its member states are

generally accepted. It is essential to get the support of the international community

rather than the Security Council. With the pressure of the international community,

countries with nuclear power can thus raise issues such as disarmament or limitation.

(Maitre, 2018)

Negotiating from an undisputed national interest

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is the most powerful decision-making body

of the United Nations. It is responsible for maintaining security and peace among member

states. While all resolutions taken by other organs of the United Nations are advisory,

UNSC resolutions are binding on all member states. This bindingness stems from the

United Nations Charter, to which the member states are party and signed. It cannot be

claimed that every issue that comes to the agenda of the Security Council is easily

resolved. The main reason for this is that the permanent members of the Security

Council, unlike the General Assembly, have veto voting rights and can use this right when

there is a situation contrary to their national interests or if they have a different opinion

about the international system. There is no limitation or regulation in which situations

the permanent members can use their veto power, in other words, they can cast negative

votes; they are free to cast any vote they want in line with their own opinions. The duties

of the General Assembly are to make recommendations on disarmament and arms

control, to hold talks that will affect peace and security, to make suggestions on all issues,

and to make suggestions for the peaceful solution of problems that disrupt good relations

between countries. Although it is an advisory decision-making body, it is also a suitable

arena for states to develop common attitudes and behaviors. Based on all these, the

organ that small countries like Kazakhstan can exert influence on is the General

Assembly, the United Nations organ. While the decisions taken are not binding, national

interests are still an important consideration in this decision-making space, as votes are

discussed and decided on many issues and decisions are taken by absolute majority or

with the approval of two-thirds of the number of members present. When negotiating in

such a context, it is extremely important to present arguments against the national

position in a clear and integrated manner and to convince the other party. When a

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member state is seen as having no national interest in the issue, divided or unreconciled,

rival parties in the negotiation process can use it as a strategy to undermine that

country's proposed arguments and suggest the opposite. (Omarov, 2017)

Theoretically, there should be a collaboration and division of labor between agencies,

media, NGOs and government. While actors such as NGO representatives and media

organizations take part in influencing the international community, government

representatives and diplomats participate in the work of the General Assembly, providing

expertise and trying to create a consensus. Scientific actors such as politics, social science

and communication form a scientific ground. It seems that experts and government

representatives, however technical or superficial, have a common understanding of

nuclear weapons control and disarmament in the interests of Kazakhstan. As a supporting

power to Kazakhstan, Turkey and Central Asian Turkish states' NGOs and experts-

diplomats are also helping. There is also a social consensus in Kazakhstan regarding the

control and limitation of nuclear weapons. Agencies, NGOs and government work on the

same page. The parties have frequent and informal contacts with each other, exchange

ideas and facilitate each other's work. Since Kazakhstan has a relatively smaller state

administration than the nuclear power states, the working networks of government and

private organizations are close to each other and communication is easier. When a plan

against nuclear proliferation is prepared, the opposition and the media react to it very

little, and there is a national tendency to act together on this issue. "Kazakhstan's

national interests" are at the forefront. It is not always a good thing to have such close

relations between experts, NGOs, agencies and government representatives. While

beneficial results are obtained when it comes to nuclear proliferation, it can have

detrimental effects on corruption, bribery and the transparency of the political process.

Concluding remarks

This article is based on the argument that small states can have an impact on

international relations and have the ability to influence the policies of other states.

Kazakh policy makers, diplomats, and those working in NGOs have proven themselves in

international relations, especially the United Nations, on nuclear disarmament and control

of nuclear weapons since Kazakhstan became independent and have been pioneers in

this regard. The results obtained from these experiences over thirty years bring us to

four important factors. The first of these is the image that Kazakhstan and its policy

makers have drawn over the years, because the perception they created and the image

they drew on all issues related to nuclear disarmament since the 1990s gave them the

ability to exert power and influence. Since gaining its independence and becoming a

member of the United Nations, Kazakhstan has both supported the work on nuclear

disarmament and presented new proposals and plans in the General Assembly. Secondly,

the role of expertise and knowledge in the policy and strategy-making process, which is

striking about nuclear disarmament and its inspection, was examined and it was seen

that Kazakhstan's expertise and experience in this field from the Soviet period gave it an

advantage. Kazakhstan, which was the test site of the Soviets' nuclear weapons,

influenced the decisions of the UN General Assembly on the control of nuclear weapons

with years of experience and expertise and gained the support of other countries.

Activities such as having 29 August accepted as the International Day for Combating

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Nuclear Weapons Testing in the UN General Assembly, leading the establishment of the

Organization for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and clearing the Central

Asian geography from nuclear weapons are examples of Kazakhstan's achievements in

this regard. Third, national policies and compliance of these policies with the expectations

of the international community have been seen as a good example and supportive feature

in the decision-making process between UN member states and themselves. Well-

developed domestic policy and relevant experience provide important inputs to

negotiations at the UN. Fourth, small states enjoyed a better position and persuasive

power through smaller governance institutions than nuclear states. A clear, stable and

fully unified national position and policy, which is necessary to persuade other states in

the negotiation processes in the UN and other institutions, is a persuasive element for

countries that are smaller such as Kazakhstan and have close networks compared to

large states , because the government of Kazakhstan, agencies, As NGOs and the media

have a common stance on nuclear disarmament and its control, their position is

strengthened against other states and representatives working against them. We can

expect that Kazakhstan will continue to be a leading and supportive country and one of

the countries that have a say in the field of nuclear disarmament in the future. Some

reservations should be made, as it is only an example of nuclear disarmament that has

been studied. The subject will gain depth and clearer information with further studies on

the effects of small states on international relations. The results we present here can be

used as a case study for further research.

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How to cite this note

Dedeoğlu, Murat (2026). The Impact of Small States on Internatıonal Problems: The Power of

Kazakhstan in the Unıted Natıons Decısıons. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. VOL.

17, Nº. 1, May 2026, pp. 685-694. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.17.1.05