OBSERVARE
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
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May 2026
176
THE SINO AVIATION DIPLOMACY ACROSS ASIA
KARUNYA SAKA LISTIANTO
151220060@student.upnyk.ac.id
He is currently a final-year undergraduate student of International Relations at Universitas
Pembangunan Nasional “Veteran” Yogyakarta (Indonesia). His research interests include energy
affairs in international relations, aviation, and environmental issues. Additionally, he serves as
the Editor-in-Chief of the Pena Wimaya Journal of International Relations for the 2025 term,
which is staffed entirely by undergraduate students. In the same year, he acted as a research
assistant for paradiplomacy research. He has published several articles and books on topics such
as diplomacy, paradiplomacy, environmental issues, and scouting.
Abstract
The Commercial Aircraft Corp of China (COMAC), a state-owned enterprise, has strategically
positioned itself within the global aviation sector through the introduction of the ARJ21
regional jet and the C919 narrow-body aircraft. The inaugural commercial flight of the C919
in May 2023 positioned it in direct competition with the Boeing 737 Max and the Airbus A320.
The utilization of aviation diplomacy by China, exemplified through COMAC's promotional
activities in Asia, seeks to enhance its economic and diplomatic influence via collaboration in
civil aviation. The qualitative study, employing a single case and documentary evidence,
suggests that COMAC's initiatives extend beyond mere marketing efforts. The participation in
the 2024 Singapore Air Show, along with subsequent demonstration visits to Laos and
Malaysia, has resulted in significant international attention for its advertising campaign,
leading to initial orders. The sales encompass the inaugural foreign delivery of the ARJ21 to
TransNusa Airlines in Indonesia, as well as a significant agreement with GallopAir, based in
Brunei, for the acquisition of 30 aircraft, which includes the first overseas purchase of the
C919. The study indicates that the Civil Aviation Administration of China is actively
participating in aviation diplomacy. This involves bilateral aviation safety arrangements, such
as the Working Arrangement with Indonesia, as well as regulatory modifications in Brunei and
Vietnam aimed at recognizing and adopting airworthiness standards. The diplomatic and
regulatory initiatives are essential to address structural challenges, such as the market
dominance of the Boeing-Airbus duopoly, the reliance of the C919's supply chain on Western
suppliers for critical components, and the certification obstacles posed by the FAA and EASA.
China is utilizing the aircraft produced by COMAC as instruments of diplomacy and commerce,
thereby demonstrating its technological aspirations and reinforcing connections within Asia.
Keywords
Aviation Diplomacy, Sino Aviation, Diplomacy, COMAC.
Resumo
A Commercial Aircraft Corp of China (COMAC), uma empresa estatal, posicionou-se
estrategicamente no setor da aviação global através do lançamento do jato regional ARJ21 e
do avião de fuselagem estreita C919. O voo comercial inaugural do C919, em maio de 2023,
colocou-o em concorrência direta com o Boeing 737 Max e o Airbus A320. A utilização da
diplomacia aeronáutica pela China, exemplificada pelas atividades promocionais da COMAC
na Ásia, visa reforçar a sua influência económica e diplomática através da colaboração na
aviação civil. O estudo qualitativo, recorrendo a um caso único e a provas documentais, sugere
que as iniciativas da COMAC vão além de meros esforços de marketing. A participação no
Singapore Air Show de 2024, juntamente com visitas de demonstração subsequentes ao Laos
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e à Malásia, resultou numa atenção internacional significativa para a sua campanha
publicitária, conduzindo a encomendas iniciais. As vendas abrangem a entrega internacional
inaugural do ARJ21 à TransNusa Airlines na Indonésia, bem como um acordo significativo com
a GallopAir, sediada no Brunei, para a aquisição de 30 aeronaves, o que inclui a primeira
compra no estrangeiro do C919. O estudo indica que a Administração da Aviação Civil da
China está a participar ativamente na diplomacia aeronáutica. Isto envolve acordos bilaterais
de segurança da aviação, tais como o Acordo de Trabalho com a Indonésia, bem como
alterações regulamentares no Brunei e no Vietname destinadas a reconhecer e adotar normas
de aeronavegabilidade. As iniciativas diplomáticas e regulamentares são essenciais para
enfrentar desafios estruturais, tais como o domínio de mercado do duopólio Boeing-Airbus, a
dependência da cadeia de abastecimento do C919 em fornecedores ocidentais para
componentes críticos e os obstáculos de certificação impostos pela FAA e pela EASA. A China
está a utilizar as aeronaves produzidas pela COMAC como instrumentos de diplomacia e
comércio, demonstrando assim as suas aspirações tecnológicas e reforçando as ligações
dentro da Ásia.
Palavras-chave
Diplomacia da Aviação, Aviação Chinesa, Diplomacia, COMAC.
How to cite this article
Listianto, Karunya Saka (2026). The Sino Aviation Diplomacy Across Asia. Janus.net, e-journal of
international relations, VOL. 17, Nº. 1, May 2026, pp. 176-198. https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-
7251.17.1.9
Article submitted on 1 March 2025 and accepted on 10 January 2026.
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THE SINO AVIATION DIPLOMACY ACROSS ASIA
KARUNYA SAKA LISTIANTO
Introduction
Aviation and diplomacy have had a certain degree of linked relationship. Aviation allows
people to travel long distances swiftly, drastically altering the nature of diplomacy in the
20th century (Kobierecki, 2020). The aviation domain encompasses all elements related
to flight and the aircraft industry. It has revolutionized global travel and transportation
by making long-distance journeys that were once deemed impossible now achievable.
Continuous advancements in aircraft technology are consistently pushing the limits of air
travel and impacting a variety of industries around the globe.
The advancement of the aviation industry is not exclusively propelled by private
businesses but also encompasses state-owned enterprises. Numerous states have
founded national airlines and provided funding to local aircraft manufacturers to stimulate
their economies and showcase their technological capabilities. The aviation sector
experiences more government intervention than any other industry, which creates a
significant burden despite the competitive nature of the global market. The combination
of competition and government interference leads to a fragmented aviation industry
(Chattopadhyay, 2015).
China serves as a prime illustration of state intervention within the aviation sector.
Among emerging and newly industrialized nations, China boasts the largest aircraft
industry in employment, heavily focused on military aircraft production. The majority of
these aircraft are intended for domestic use. However, in the early 21st century, the
Chinese government made a significant commitment to invest in the advancement of
commercial jet aircraft (Eriksson, 2017).
Despite the dominance of foreign aviation manufacturers in the market, China aims to
make a mark in the industry by pursuing the goal of producing its own aircraft. Since
2008, the state-owned Commercial Aircraft Corp of China (COMAC) has been working on
developing the C919 jetliner, which is designed to compete with popular models like
Boeing’s 737 and the Airbus A320 (Bowerman, 2014). China is determined to retain its
profitable large commercial airplane market and not allow foreign companies like Boeing
and Airbus to dominate it, especially considering that China's own demand accounts for
a significant portion of the global market. Similar to Airbus, China's entry into the industry
will be facilitated by government support, and this development is anticipated to have
significant consequences for both the United States and Europe (Levine, 2015).
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Other than the C919 narrow-body jet, COMAC is also developing the ARJ21 regional jet.
1
The ARJ21 is China's first turbofan aircraft with fully autonomous intellectual property,
accommodating 70-110 seats. It aims to connect central cities with neighboring mid-
sized and small-sized cities through air routes (Xu, 2015). Since June 2016, COMAC has
delivered a total of 117 ARJ21 aircraft to different airlines. A significant achievement was
reached on 24 November 2023, as the regional jet ARJ21 exceeded 10 million passenger
trips (Luo et al., 2024).
COMAC continues to face ongoing challenges with its ARJ21 and C919 aircraft. Chinese
aircraft manufacturers have encountered significant challenges in obtaining certification
for their commercial planes from both the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the
United States and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). The absence of
certification from these esteemed regulatory bodies poses a formidable obstacle for
COMAC in its endeavor to market its aircraft internationally (Francis, 2016). Despite
facing challenges, COMAC continues to promote the C919 and ARJ21 aircraft. The ARJ21
has attracted attention from countries outside of China, making it the first Chinese-made
airliner to be used in international commercial flights (Bitzinger, 2010).
This paper focuses on China's aviation diplomacy through COMAC across Asia. China has
been utilizing its state-owned aircraft manufacturer, COMAC, to strengthen ties with
other Asian countries through partnerships and sales of civilian aircraft and regulatory
framework. The aviation diplomacy demonstrated by COMAC also demonstrated how
China is breaking through the challenges faced by its homegrown aircraft manufacturers.
Literature Review
Previous research on how aviation diplomacy is used in terms of international relations
and trade policy illustrates a multifaceted approach where air transport agreements serve
as instruments for fostering bilateral and multilateral ties. Kobierecki (2020) provides a
comprehensive article that offers a conceptual framework for analyzing the relationship
between aviation and international relations. The importance of aviation in diplomacy is
underscored by the substantial increase in air travel popularity over the past decades.
Additionally, it is argued that aviation diplomacy warrants further exploration by scholars
in the fields of diplomacy, international relations, and political science (Kobierecki, 2020).
In terms of aviation diplomacy in Asia, Indriani (2021) posits that aviation diplomacy is
instrumental in promoting ASEAN identity through the strategic use of air assets and
infrastructure as mechanisms of soft power, manifesting in three distinct approaches.
Initially, airlines acted as emblems of both national and regional identities. Secondly, air
operations are employed to forge political connections, particularly in scenarios involving
humanitarian efforts. Lastly, the establishment of air transportation networks and
airports is crucial for facilitating cross-border mobility and enhancing regional
connectivity.
Yang (2024) examines the significance of aviation diplomacy in the relationship between
Belarus and China, highlighting its role in key agreements such as the Joint Statement
on enhancing the comprehensive strategic partnership in the new era. Additionally, the
1
In 2024, COMAC announced that the ARJ21 was renamed to C909 as the commercial name of the aircraft. In
this paper, the aircraft will be referred to as the ARJ21.
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creation of air routes connecting Belarus, China, and Russia is seen as a pivotal
development. This interconnectivity not only represents active governmental
collaboration within multilateral and bilateral contexts but also facilitates economic
growth, tourism, and humanitarian efforts across these nations. Listianto (2024) explores
the interconnection between aviation and tourism diplomacy, exemplified by AirAsia
Indonesia's approach to what is termed "beyond state interactions." This strategy
involves the use of special liveries on aircraft to advertise different tourist destinations
within Indonesia. These liveries facilitate interactions that occur directly between AirAsia
Indonesia and its customers, thereby promoting tourism through an innovative form of
diplomatic engagement.
There is a lack of literature addressing aviation diplomacy concerning state-owned firms
like COMAC, which promotes Chinese-manufactured aircraft. This gap underscores a
substantial avenue for research on how state-sponsored enterprises such as COMAC
utilize their products as instruments of diplomatic involvement via aviation.
Aviation Diplomacy
Aviation diplomacy is used to bridge international relations and aviation. More accurately,
it emerged as a field of study when scholars began observing the political aspects of the
aviation industry. International aviation is more than just a mere challenge within a
dynamic global economic framework; it represents a significant concern in the realm of
international diplomacy. It influences governments' perceptions towards each other,
shapes the perspectives of individuals regarding their own and foreign nations, and has
far-reaching implications on the security measures that govern our lives (Lowenfeld,
1975). Aviation serves as a significant tool for nations to exert soft power. One illustration
of this is how efficiently managed national airlines can enhance the international image
of their respective countries. Moreover, aviation plays a pivotal role in enhancing soft
power by bridging geographical gaps and fostering connections among individuals,
societies, businesses, concepts, advancements, and prospects (McClory, 2014).
The concept of aviation diplomacy entails using commercial and general aviation activities
to foster global collaboration and enhance relationships between nations. Aviation
diplomacy plays a vital role in breaking down barriers and fostering greater unity among
diverse populations and communities by facilitating air travel and cargo transportation
along established flight routes. Aviation diplomacy is also known by various terms like
"air diplomacy" or "aero diplomacy."
Aviation diplomacy represents the outcome and illustration of the diversification and
democratization of diplomatic practices. It symbolizes a specific domain of diplomatic
interaction – the sphere of global aviation, whose importance has been on the rise in
recent years due to the expanding population of travelers. Additionally, it involves the
participation of new diplomatic entities, specifically international aviation organizations
or airlines (Kobierecki, 2020). Another term for aviation diplomacy, "air diplomacy,"
refers to the strategic utilization of airpower in nonviolent operations to prevent conflicts
and bolster a nation's influence (Lowther, 2010). Another explanation about air
diplomacy involves using elements of air power to strengthen foreign policy goals
(Wijetunge & Wanasinghe, 2021). Countries utilize aviation diplomacy to establish a
positive image globally through different diplomatic strategies. This can be accomplished
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by leveraging national airlines, airports, and air shows. In essence, aviation diplomacy is
intertwined with public diplomacy, utilizing soft power mechanisms to wield influence
internationally (Kobierecki, 2020).
According to Kobierecki (2020), key indicators of aviation diplomacy include several
strategic elements. Firstly, aviation serves as a foreign policy tool where governments
leverage aviation agreements and logistical arrangements to influence diplomatic
strategies. This includes negotiating bilateral air service agreements and manipulating
flight routes to foster or strain international relationships. Secondly, aviation acts as a
means of promoting national image. Airlines and airports are utilized to symbolize
national identity and prestige, showcasing a nation's technological progress and cultural
appeal. Lastly, aviation subjects such as the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO), the International Air Transport Association (IATA), and individual airlines engage
as diplomatic actors. They participate in negotiations, set international standards, and
embody quasi-diplomatic agents, thus extending their influence beyond commercial
interests to broader political and diplomatic realms.
Methods
This study utilized a qualitative methodology, employing a single case study approach to
specifically examine China's aviation diplomacy through COMAC, the Commercial Aircraft
Corporation of China. Qualitative research design, as outlined by Creswell and Creswell
(2018), is used to deliver a thorough and in-depth analysis of social phenomena through
meticulously examined qualitative data. The findings are presented as thorough and
reliable narrative accounts (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This study examines
documentary evidence, aligning with the assertion by Creswell and Creswell that
qualitative inquiry requires the collection of various data types, including documents, to
develop a thorough understanding of the subject.
A single case study approach was selected, as it allows an in-depth examination of a
single instance to test theoretical explanations or identify causal factors within a specific
real-world context. A single case could provide highly valid conceptual insights by
accounting for the nuanced intricacies of various situational elements. Though only
analyzing one case, meaningful conclusions may still be drawn about wider phenomena
by retaining a comprehensive understanding of the intricate dynamics involved through
an immersive investigation of that single instance. This approach holds the potential to
offer rich conceptual backing alongside broader implications through a focused evaluation
of one case's unique context (Curini & Franzese, 2020).
The case study focuses on COMAC's C919 narrow-body airliner and ARJ-21 program,
examining how these initiatives may be leveraged to enhance China's diplomatic
engagements and promote its aviation industry on the global stage. Data is gathered
through a comprehensive documentary analysis of industry reports, news articles, and
documents related to COMAC's efforts in international cooperation and the overseas
marketing of the C919 and ARJ21. This approach aims to provide a thorough
understanding of the strategic use of these aircraft programs in furthering China's
diplomacy, highlighting its potential impact on international relations.
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Results and Discussions
Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China (COMAC)
Around 2000, China began developing its commercial aircraft industry, driven by the
rapidly growing civil aviation sector. Projections showed Chinese airlines would need
about 8,700 aircraft between 2020 and 2040, making China the largest aircraft market
globally. This led to a focus on domestic aircraft projects, financed and managed by
Chinese entities. However, the lack of technological expertise and experience posed
significant challenges, requiring substantial investment in knowledge and resources.
Consequently, private enterprises were deterred, leaving State-Owned Enterprises
(SOEs) as the primary means to build an indigenous commercial aircraft industry (Chen
et al., 2024). In 2008, the Chinese government initiated the establishment of COMAC as
an autonomous entity by segregating the China subsidiaries from the Aviation Industry
Corporation of China (AVIC) and transferring the intellectual property related to China's
regional jet, the ARJ-21. AVIC continues to hold a significant role in China's aerospace
industry, serving as the country's primary military aircraft producer and a key supplier
to COMAC (Zenglein & Sebastian, 2023).
ARJ21 and C919
Initially revealed in 2002, the Advanced Regional Jet for the 21st Century (ARJ-21)
represents a significant milestone in the State Council’s grander plan. This aircraft marks
the first instance of China producing a passenger plane entirely of its own design,
development, and manufacture (Stokes, 2009). As of November 24, 2023, the regional
jet ARJ21 has surpassed 10 million passenger trips since June 2016, marking a significant
milestone. COMAC has delivered 117 ARJ21 aircraft to various airlines, allowing them to
operate on over 400 domestic and international routes spanning more than 140 cities.
With nearly 1800 flights per week, the ARJ21 has become a prominent player in the
aviation sector (Luo et al., 2024).
The ARJ21, a 90-seat regional jet, is a collaborative effort between COMAC and
Bombardier, with its design based on the McDonnell-Douglas MD-90. The major
subsystems of the ARJ21 were procured from suppliers in North America and Europe.
Despite facing several delays, the delivery schedule was pushed from 2010 to 2011.
Originally initiated by AVIC, the project was later handed over to COMAC when the latter
took charge of commercial aircraft development. The future focus of COMAC on regional
jets remains uncertain, as projections indicate limited growth in the Chinese regional jet
market (Harrison, 2011). The ARJ21 has proven to be a successful aircraft, achieving
several noteworthy milestones from 2022 to 2024. On December 18, 2022, the ARJ21-
700 aircraft was delivered to TransNusa Airlines, an Indonesian carrier, as reported by
China Daily. This delivery marked the inaugural entry of China's jet airliner into the
international market (Wenqian, 2022). On April 18, 2023, as announced in a press
release by China Aircraft Leasing Group Holdings Limited (CALC), TransNusa Airlines
successfully commenced commercial operations with its first ARJ21 aircraft after meeting
rigorous air operator certification requirements from the Directorate General of Civil
Aviation of Indonesia (DGCA), and the inaugural flight from Jakarta to Bali has been
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successfully completed (CALC, 2023). TransNusa Airlines received its second ARJ21
aircraft on June 10, 2023, per the COMAC agreement (Wu, 2023).
On September 22, 2023, Reuters reported that GallopAir, a newly established Brunei-
based airline, plans to purchase 30 aircraft from COMAC. This deal includes the first
overseas acquisitions of the C919 jet. The agreement comprises 15 orders for ARJ21
aircraft, including its freighter and business jet variants, as well as 15 orders for the C919
(Reuters, 2023). GallopAir is aiming to commence operations by the end of 2024, pending
approval from Brunei's aviation regulator for the regional jet manufactured by COMAC,
as per a separate report (Barrington et al., 2024).
The C919, a passenger aircraft developed by China as part of a national project, was
created and manufactured by COMAC. Originally planned for completion in 2012, its
inaugural flight was set for 2016. Despite these setbacks, COMAC is poised to become a
formidable contender in the civil aviation market, challenging the dominance of Boeing
and Airbus in the future. The C919, designed to accommodate between 150 and 170
passengers, is set to compete with the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320 in the aviation
industry (Victoria & Petrescu, 2019). The C919 aircraft project is closely linked to the
establishment of COMAC on May 11, 2008. The corporation was created with the primary
objective of overseeing and managing the development of the C919. This initiative aimed
to meet the anticipated demand for large passenger aircraft in China over the next twenty
years (Levine, 2015).
These aircraft projects highlight China's progress in aerospace technology and its
aspirations to compete globally. The ARJ21's success in domestic and limited
international operations and the C919's potential to challenge established aircraft
underscore China's strategic intent.
COMAC’s Into Global Competitive Landscape and Structural Challenges
The landscape of the global aviation market is promptly dominated by the duopoly of
Boeing and Airbus. According to BOCO et al. (2025), Airbus and Boeing have maintained
a lucrative duopoly in the commercial aircraft manufacturing industry for decades,
together possessing around 99% of the global market share, as reported by the
International Air Transport Association. The current stance is supported by significant
fixed costs, rigorous regulatory barriers, and substantial market power, which together
hinder new entrants such as COMAC, whose ability to compete internationally is limited
by certification constraints (BOCO et al., 2025). Scholars have argued that the duopoly
of these companies is reinforced by governmental assistance/subsidies, which Chasmar
(2020) describes as aid. The substantial assistance provided to both Airbus and Boeing
exemplifies the approaches employed by the United States and Europe in formulating
industrial policy. In contrast to the direct and overt aid offered to Airbus by participating
European governments, the aid provided to Boeing is marked by a multifaceted array of
tax incentives, export assistance, procurement strategies, and various other forms of
encouragement from different levels of government. Moreover, Truxal (2024) argued
that state subsidies in the aircraft manufacturing sector have historically been a
significant cause for international trade disputes, notably leading to allegations of support
for Airbus and Boeing and resulting in prolonged proceedings before the World Trade
Organization (WTO) Dispute Settlement Body. The dispute between the EU and the USA
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over these aircraft subsidies was the longest-running in WTO history, lasting 17 years
before an agreement was called in 2021. These state subsidies profoundly impact
competition among aircraft manufacturers by enabling new entrants to challenge
established market leaders, as demonstrated by Airbus's initial rise against Boeing's
previously de facto monopoly during the 90s (Truxal, 2024).
Scholars also contend that the emergence of COMAC as a competitor to the duopoly of
Airbus and Boeing signifies a new phase in the global aircraft manufacturing industry.
Reshetnikova et al. (2024) argue that COMAC was specifically established by the Chinese
government to develop domestic large passenger aircraft and directly challenge the long-
standing duopoly of Airbus and Boeing. Its flagship C919 airliner, designed to compete
with the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320 in the narrow-body market, along with the CR929
wide-body project, exemplifies China's ambition to secure a significant share of the global
commercial aircraft market (Reshetnikova et al., 2024). Olienyk and Carbaugh (2011)
similarly argued that, in the near future, the most significant threat to the Boeing-Airbus
duopoly in the large aircraft sector, as well as the dominance of Bombardier and Embraer
in the regional jet market, is likely to arise from China. The substantial rise in per capita
income stemming from the swift economic growth in China is generating considerable
demand for air travel domestically. In response, the Chinese government aims to satisfy
a significant portion of this demand through the development and production of new
regional jets and large commercial aircraft within the country (Olienyk & Carbaugh,
2011).
However, the entrance of COMAC into the global aircraft manufacturing industry also
faced challenges. Verduyn (2021) argued that, given the substantial experience and scale
advantages possessed by Airbus and Boeing in the production of commercial jets, it is
unlikely that China will be able to manufacture an aircraft at a lower cost in the near
future. There could be other political reasons behind this, like wanting to be free of foreign
companies and a strong sense of national pride. This feeling is clear in the company's
seemingly endless supply of money, but the fact that foreign suppliers are hesitant to
give COMAC parts is likely to be a big problem. A related challenge to that faced by
COMAC is also impacting its supply chain. Li (2018) asserts that the supply chain of
COMAC is essential for surmounting the current blockade on core technologies imposed
by Western nations, which limits access to vital components and expertise. At the same
time, as a newcomer in the global aircraft industry, COMAC faces the challenging task of
refining and developing its emerging supply chain systems to improve operational
efficiency and reliability (Li, 2018).
According to Eriksson (2017), the commercial aircraft industry in China faces three
primary challenges. Initially, there is a deficiency in indigenous technology and the pace
of development. This is evidenced by the reliance on foreign technology and suppliers for
critical systems, the presence of limited design capabilities, and project delays
exemplified by the ARJ21's 14-year development period, which can be attributed to errors
and a lack of experience. Furthermore, significant challenges exist regarding regulations
and a deficiency of acceptance within the international market. The ARJ21 and C919,
both designed in China, face significant challenges in obtaining international
airworthiness certification from organizations such as the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) or European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). This limitation implies that they
can exclusively be marketed within China, thereby undermining their global credibility.
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Ultimately, the industry is plagued by operational inefficiencies and inadequate
management practices. This includes issues such as low productivity levels, an excessive
workforce resulting from antiquated management styles, a deficiency in contemporary
management and marketing skills, and elevated production costs attributed to taxes on
imported components.
Zenglein and Sebastian (2023) also cite the Boeing-Airbus duopoly as a problem. In this
scenario, China cannot encourage foreign enterprises to compete for technology. Export
controls apply to many commercial aerospace technologies that can be used for civilian
and military purposes. The C919's engine requires a US license, and other crucial systems
may have similar requirements. This dilemma is exacerbated by US-China geopolitical
competitiveness. Thus, foreign aerospace businesses are becoming more cautious about
knowledge sharing and collaboration. Concerns about intellectual property threats and
technology transfer costs drive this concern.
The C919's supply chain is predominantly dependent on Western technology (illustrated
in table 1), as critical components such as the Leading Edge Aviation Propulsion (LEAP-
1C) engine, fly-by-wire flight controls, and sophisticated avionics are sourced from
American and European firms. Although Chinese companies primarily manufacture the
aircraft structure and fuselage, they must collaborate or procure directly from established
Western aerospace firms such as General Electric (GE), Honeywell, and Safran to acquire
essential propulsion and navigation technology. This architectural reliance exposes the
program to significant geopolitical risk, as potential export restrictions or sanctions could
hinder access to the specialized components required for aircraft operation. The
production feasibility of the C919 poses a challenge to China's strategic objective of
attaining complete autonomy in the commercial aviation sector. The C919's ongoing
production in China renders it less competitive on the worldwide market.
Table 1. Major Systems and Foreign Supplier Origins of the COMAC C919
Component
Category
Component Name
Main Supplier(s)
Country/Region of
Origin
Airframe
Fly-by-wire Flight Control
System
Honeywell Aerospace
US
Fly-by-wire Actuation
System
Parker Aerospace
US
Landing Gear
Liebherr LAMC Aviation (JV:
Liebherr & AVIC)
Europe and China
Hydraulic Systems
Parker Aerospace; NEIAS
Parker Aero Systems (JV)
US and China
Wheels, Tires & Brakes
Honeywell Aerospace;
Michelin
US
Fuselage & Empennage
AVIC SAC; Jiangxi Hongdu;
Chengdu Aircraft
China
Avionics
Cockpit Control Systems
Eaton Corporation
US
Navigation & Display
Systems
GE Aviation; Honeywell
Aerospace
US
Weather Radar & Sensors
Collins Aerospace
US
Flight Recorders
GE Aviation Systems
US
Power &
Propulsion
LEAP-1C Engine
CFM International (JV: GE
and Safran)
US and Europe
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FADEC (Engine Controls)
JV: GE and FADEC
International
US and Europe
Auxiliary Power Units (APU)
Honeywell Aerospace
US
Thrust Reversers & Nacelles
Nexcelle (JV: Safran & ST
Engineering)
Europe and Asia Pacific
Fuel Systems
Parker Aerospace
US
Materials
Carbon-Reinforced
Composites
Hexcel Composites
US
Aluminum Plate
Aleris Rolled Products
Europe
Titanium Aluminide Alloy
Alcoa Corporation
US
Source: Airframer (www.airframer.com), compiled by the Center for Strategic and International
Studies (CSIS), 2020. https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-
public/201203_Kennedy_Fig2B_Suppliers_List_v2.pdf
COMAC’s Promotion
In 2024, COMAC commenced its international promotional campaign for the ARJ21 and
C919 aircraft, signifying a pivotal advancement in its efforts to penetrate the global
commercial aviation industry. This ambitious campaign commenced with presentations
at notable international airshows, including the 2024 Singapore Airshow. Two C919 and
three ARJ21 aircraft manufactured by COMAC participated in the Singapore Airshow held
at the Changi Exhibition Centre from February 20 to 25, 2024. COMAC indicated its
intention to leverage the event for promotional activities aimed at expanding its client
and partner network (Shine, 2024). During the Airshow, COMAC also garnered significant
attention with the acquisition of new orders for its aircraft models. Reuters reported that
Tibet Airlines and Henan Civil Aviation Development and Investment Group placed
substantial orders for COMAC aircraft. Tibet Airlines finalized a purchase agreement for
forty C919 single-aisle planes and ten ARJ21 regional jets, while Henan Civil Aviation
secured an order for six ARJ21 aircraft (Barrington et al., 2024). Prior to the Singapore
Airshow, the C919 made its inaugural flight outside of mainland China during a media
event. COMAC has positioned the C919 as a direct competitor to the industry-leading
A320 and 737 MAX models produced by Airbus and Boeing, respectively (Al Jazeera,
2024).
Following their debut at the Singapore Airshow 2024, the C919 and ARJ21 aircraft
embarked on a regional demonstration tour. The aircraft arrived in Laos on March 4,
2024, for static displays and flight demonstrations. Prior to their arrival in Laos, the
jetliners had made a stopover in Vietnam after departing Singapore (Xinhua, 2024). On
March 13, 2024, COMAC conducted static displays and demonstration flights of the C919
and ARJ21 aircraft at Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport in Selangor, Malaysia. This event
served as a platform for COMAC to showcase its aircraft and engage with potential
customers (CGTN, 2024).
COMAC's participation in various airshows held in several countries, including Singapore,
Laos, and Malaysia, serves as a promotional effort to introduce its two products. This
strategic involvement in international events underscores COMAC's commitment to
expanding its market presence and showcasing its technological advancements to a
global audience market. By engaging in these airshows, COMAC aims to enhance its
brand recognition and establish itself as a competitive player in the international
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aerospace industry. These events provide a platform for the company to demonstrate
the capabilities and innovations of its aircraft, fostering potential partnerships and
customer interest. Furthermore, such activities align with COMAC's broader objectives of
penetrating new markets and reinforcing its reputation as a leading aircraft
manufacturer.
Through COMAC's engagement with various countries in Asia via partnership agreements
and flight programs, such as flight demonstrations at Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport in
Selangor, Malaysia, and Laos, as well as marketing campaigns at the Singapore Airshow,
the company effectively promotes its C919 and ARJ21 aircraft. The use of these aircraft
as aerial displays, including a C919 test flight on the first day of the Airshow, highlights
COMAC's commitment to showcasing its technological advancements and expanding its
market presence. TransNusa is the first airline to operate the ARJ21 outside of China,
and this also demonstrates COMAC's active engagement with Asian countries. Such
collaborations not only enhance COMAC's presence in the regional aviation market but
also demonstrate the company's ability to forge significant international partnerships.
Therefore, all efforts undertaken by COMAC related to its two aircraft products, the C919
and ARJ21, represent a form of aviation cooperation aimed at expanding its economic
reach. These initiatives, including participation in international airshows, partnership
agreements, and flight demonstrations, are strategic moves to enhance COMAC's
visibility and credibility in the global aerospace market. By promoting its aircraft through
these channels, COMAC not only strengthens its market presence but also fosters
international collaborations that contribute to its economic growth. This approach
highlights the company's commitment to leveraging aviation cooperation as a vital tool
for achieving broader economic objectives and establishing itself as a key player in the
global aviation industry.
China Aviation Diplomacy through COMAC and Bilateral Agreement
In addition to its economic objectives, COMAC's participation in various airshows held in
the aforementioned countries can be examined from the perspective of diplomacy,
specifically aviation diplomacy. By engaging in these international events, COMAC not
only aims to promote its aircraft but also seeks to strengthen diplomatic ties and foster
cooperative relationships with other nations. This form of aviation diplomacy enables
COMAC to showcase its technological advancements and manufacturing capabilities,
thereby enhancing its reputation and influence in the global aerospace sector. Moreover,
this participation highlights the strategic significance of utilizing aviation platforms to
attain wider diplomatic objectives, reinforcing COMAC's position as a pivotal entity in
global aviation relations.
The role of aviation is vital in strengthening soft power, as it facilitates the overcoming
of geographical barriers and promotes interactions among people, communities, and
enterprises. concepts, innovations, and prospects (McClory, 2014). COMAC capitalizes on
this capability by participating in international airshows and forming strategic alliances.
Participation in these airshows allows COMAC to overcome geographical barriers and
promote interactions among people, communities, enterprises, ideas, innovations, and
opportunities.
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Aviation diplomacy encompasses the engagement of emerging diplomatic actors,
particularly international aviation organizations and airlines (Kobierecki, 2020). As
airlines become crucial actors in aviation diplomacy, the inclusion of the ARJ21 in
TransNusa's fleet is particularly significant, as it demonstrates COMAC's growing
international recognition. Furthermore, orders from Tibet Airlines and Henan Civil
Aviation Development and Investment Group during the Singapore Airshow 2024
underscore COMAC's expanding influence in the global aviation market. These
developments reflect the company's strategic efforts to establish itself as a leading player
in the international aerospace industry, enhancing diplomatic relations through aviation.
COMAC's involvement in the Singapore Airshow 2024 underscores its strategic focus on
aviation diplomacy. Aviation diplomacy involves the use of diplomatic tactics by nations
to cultivate a favorable global reputation, often through the utilization of national airlines,
airports, and airshows. Through the display of its aircraft at major international
gatherings, COMAC not only boosts its brand visibility but also showcases its
technological progress to a worldwide audience, a crucial aspect of public diplomacy
within the realm of aviation diplomacy.
As a result of aviation diplomacy efforts through airshows and demonstration flights
across Asian nations, notable achievements have been made. For instance, in Vietnam,
COMAC has established a successful partnership with VietJet, resulting in the signing of
contracts for a wet lease (both the aircraft and their crews) of two C909 jets from
Chengdu Airlines, effective from January 15, 2025 (Tu, 2024). Following this agreement,
a report by Reuters in January 2025 indicated that the Vietnamese government
announced its intention to eliminate regulatory barriers to facilitate the operation of
aircraft manufactured by the Chinese state-owned planemaker COMAC within the
country. Deputy Prime Minister Tran Hong Ha tasked the Ministry of Transport with
reviewing and amending existing regulations to allow for the operation of COMAC’s
aircraft. This directive was issued subsequent to a meeting in Hanoi between Deputy
Prime Minister Ha and COMAC Board Director Tan Wangeng, as stated in a government
release (Reuters, 2025).
Beyond the efforts of COMAC to expand the operational footprint of its aircraft, China has
simultaneously advanced a parallel regulatory diplomacy strategy through the Civil
Aviation Administration of China (CAAC). To facilitate the entry and sustained operation
of Chinese-manufactured aircraft in partner states such as Vietnam, Brunei, and
Indonesia, the CAAC has pursued bilateral aviation safety arrangements centered on
mutual recognition, validation, and acceptance of airworthiness standards.
An examination of the recent regional aviation regulations presented in Table 2 indicates
that the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) is gradually being integrated into
foreign legal frameworks. This indicates a significant acknowledgment by regulatory
bodies, facilitating the movement of aircraft across national borders. Bilateral validation
mechanisms, exemplified by the Working Arrangement between Indonesia's Directorate
General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) and the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC),
facilitate the acceptance of aircraft by minimizing redundant certification efforts and
designating compliance findings in accordance with a mutually agreed-upon List of
Differences. The national airworthiness standards, exemplified by Brunei's BAR 8 Part 21,
indicate that the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) is recognized as an
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acceptable National Aviation Authority of the State of Design. The aforementioned
standards serve to validate Type Certificates and Export Statements of Airworthiness that
are issued by the CAAC. The regulations established by customs support these structural
airworthiness standards. For instance, Vietnam's Decree 89/2025/ND-CP explicitly
permits the importation of aircraft that possess a Type Certificate issued or validated by
the CAAC. The implementation of these procedures establishes a unified framework of
regulations governing import operations. Their scope encompasses unilateral export
airworthiness acceptances, customs updates, and targeted bilateral validations.
Table 2. Aviation Regulatory Diplomacy: Mechanisms for COMAC Aircraft Acceptance in Asia
Regulation or
Agreement
Issuing
Authority
Legal Basis
Mechanism of
Recognition
Implication for
Chinese Aircraft
BAR 8 Part 21
Certification of
Aircraft, Parts and
Appliances
(Version 02)
Brunei
Department of
Civil Aviation
(DCA)
Civil Aviation Act
and Civil
Aviation
Regulations
(CAP 290)
Type Certificate
Acceptance Report:
Acceptance of Export
Statement of
Airworthiness.
Grants Chinese aircraft
with CAAC Type
Certificates a pathway
to obtain a Type
Certificate Acceptance
Report and Certificate
of Airworthiness in
Brunei.
Working
Arrangement on
Type Validation
and Continued
Airworthiness for
ARJ21 Airplane
Directorate
General of Civil
Aviation
(DGCA)
Indonesia &
Civil Aviation
Administration
of China
(CAAC)
Memorandum of
Understanding
(MOU) signed
May 22, 2000
Bilateral Type
Certificate Validation
based on a List of
Differences (LOD),
delegating
compliance findings
to the CAAC.
Streamlines the
validation of the
ARJ21-700 by
minimizing duplicative
certification efforts,
creating a practical
framework for the
entry of COMAC
aircraft into Indonesia.
Decree
89/2025/ND-CP
(Legal Updates
April 2025)
Government of
Vietnam
(Customs)
Decree
89/2025/ND-CP
Customs and trade
facilitation measures
permitting aircraft
importation based on
validated type
certificates.
Provides a direct
regulatory and
customs pathway for
Chinese-manufactured
aircraft (such as the
C919) to clear
Vietnamese customs
legally, facilitating
market entry.
Source: Compiled by Author
China has employed aviation regulatory diplomacy as a means to promote the sale of its
commercial aircraft to various nations. Strategic bilateral agreements and sector-specific
laws are used in this method. Brunei unilaterally adopting CAAC design guidelines and
Vietnam simplifying customs operations demonstrate Chinese aviation's credibility. China
uses validation procedures like the Indonesia-CAAC Working Arrangement to bring
aircraft like the ARJ21 into international markets to increase its worldwide presence. This
anticipated growth allows CAAC's technical compliance results to be used immediately
for foreign regulatory approval and export airworthiness acceptance, easing cross-border
commercial operations. In conclusion, bilateral technical certification and effective
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customs facilitation show that targeted regulatory collaboration boosts China's aerospace
sector and market access.
Strategic Openings for China in a Disrupted Duopoly
For several decades, the global commercial aviation market has been characterized by a
stable duopoly between Boeing and Airbus. The narrow-body aircraft produced by these
manufacturers, particularly the 737 and A320 families, have constituted the majority of
airline fleets across the globe. However, this duopolistic order has recently faced
pressures from various sources, calling into question its perceived invulnerability. The
Boeing 737 MAX program has faced significant challenges, including the repercussions of
two tragic crashes, as well as persistent regulatory and production difficulties. In early
2024, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) took the step of grounding specific
737-9 MAX jets following an incident involving a mid-air panel. This action was
accompanied by the implementation of rigorous inspections and limitations on production
expansion, reflecting an intensified focus on safety oversight. Consequently, Boeing is
required to address quality-control concerns while simultaneously resuming and
adjusting production levels under heightened scrutiny. (Federal Aviation Administration,
2024) The occurrence of concurrent labor disruptions, notably a prolonged strike
extending into late 2024, has resulted in additional delays in the resumption of production
for the best-selling aircraft. This situation highlights the diminishing operational
momentum of Boeing (CNBC, 2024). In the interim, Airbus's flagship A320neo,
representing the other segment of the duopoly, has encountered significant production
and delivery challenges. Ongoing supply-chain bottlenecks, particularly concerning
engine and aerostructure shortages, have compelled Airbus to adjust its forecast for
deliveries in 2024 downward and to postpone its timeline for achieving target production
rates. Additionally, sustained pressures on monthly outputs and continuous quality
inspections of A320 panels have contributed to delays and raised concerns within the
industry (Meier, 2024; Reid, 2024). The simultaneous challenges encountered by both
manufacturers—regulatory and production constraints at Boeing, coupled with supply-
chain and quality issues at Airbus—diminish the previously regarded strong duopoly and
highlight the fundamental structural weaknesses within the global narrow-body aircraft
supply system.
The disruption of the narrow-body market following program-level crises and supply
chain constraints produced measurable operational and financial stress within the Airbus–
Boeing duopoly. Prolonged groundings, regulatory production caps, and engine-related
bottlenecks translated into delivery backlogs, rising costs, and heightened uncertainty
for airlines dependent on predictable fleet expansion cycles.
Between late 2018 and early 2019, events involving Boeing 737 MAX airplanes in Ethiopia
and Indonesia led to extensive worldwide scrutiny of U.S. aviation supervision. Following
these occurrences, a number of foreign governments, including the geopolitical
competitor China and the close ally the United Kingdom, immediately halted operations
of the American-made aircraft, rerouting flights of the 737 MAX from British airspace.
The swift international response contrasted sharply with Boeing's and the FAA's original
response, which was perceived as vague and ambivalent, possibly reflecting a reluctance
to take on a major U.S. company. Two days later than other nations, the Federal Aviation
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Administration finally grounded the world's fleet of 737 MAX airplanes, a startling delay
that demonstrated a decline in confidence in the US aviation regulatory system (Almond,
2019).
Graph 1. Boeing 737 MAX Total Quantity of Orders (2018 - 2025)
Source: Boeing, Orders and Deliveries. https://www.boeing.com/commercial (compiled by
author)
Graph 1 shows how many orders there are for the Boeing 737 MAX in total. The big drop
in orders from 2019 to 2020 is a direct result of the loss of trust that followed the two
tragic 737 MAX crashes and the grounding of the planes around the world. The big drop
in the number of orders shows how much financial and operational stress Boeing is under
because of regulatory scrutiny and production delays. Fang (2020) posited that, in this
context, a significant window of opportunity has emerged. As Boeing experiences a
decline in its market share, it is not solely Airbus that occupies this void; rather, it is non-
Western manufacturers with their developing products that are increasingly filling the
gap (Fang, 2020).
In contrast, for Airbus, the years 2023 and 2025 presented a set of challenges for the
A320 aircraft. In July 2023, RTX Corporation announced a significant manufacturing
defect associated with its Pratt & Whitney Geared Turbofan (GTF) engines, particularly
the PW1100G-JM model utilized in the Airbus A320neo family. The recall was prompted
by the identification of microscopic contaminants in the powder metal utilized in the
production of high-pressure turbine disks from 2015 to 2021. This condition has the
potential to lead to premature micro-cracking and, ultimately, uncontained engine failure
(Walker, 2023). The press release issued by RTX indicates that this uncommon condition
in powder metal specifically affects the PW1100 GTF engines, which are utilized in the
A320neo aircraft. This situation necessitates expedited inspections and the formulation
of a fleet management plan. This plan projects an estimated 600 to 700 additional engine
removals for shop visits from 2023 to 2026, predominantly occurring in 2023 and early
2024. This will result in a notable rise in the number of aircraft grounded within the GTF-
powered A320 fleet (RTX, 2023).
In the year 2025, Airbus acknowledged a significant challenge related to its A320 Family
aircraft, specifically regarding the potential for intense solar radiation to compromise data
that is essential for flight control systems. This matter impacts a considerable number of
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operational aircraft, leading Airbus to urge operators to undertake immediate
precautionary measures. The implementation of available software and/or hardware
protection through an Alert Operators Transmission (AOT) is being recommended, which
will be further supported by an Emergency Airworthiness Directive from EASA. Airbus
recognizes that the implementation of these essential recommendations will result in
operational disruptions for both passengers and customers (Airbus, 2025). It has been
reported that approximately 6,000 A320 aircraft may be impacted due to this issue
(Leggett, 2025).
Graph 2. A320 Family Net Orders (2018 - 2025)
Source: Airbus, Orders and Deliveries https://www.airbus.com/en/products-services/commercial-
aircraft/orders-and-deliveries (compiled by author)
Between the years 2023 and 2025, significant and cumulative technical and supply chain
challenges impacted the net orders for the Airbus A320 family, as illustrated in Graph 2.
The significant decline observed post-2023 can be attributed to RTX Corporation's
disclosure in July 2023 regarding a manufacturing flaw in the Pratt & Whitney Geared
Turbofan (GTF) engine. The prompt removal and servicing of between 600 and 700
A320neo aircraft engines from 2023 to 2026 resulted in significant groundings and delays
in deliveries. In 2025, Airbus recognized a significant concern regarding elevated solar
radiation, which heightened operational uncertainty by jeopardizing the data integrity of
the A320 Family flight control systems. This situation poses a risk to 6,000 operational
aircraft, necessitating immediate precautions and the issuance of an Emergency
Airworthiness Directive. The simultaneous occurrence of significant crises concerning
engine reliability, flight safety, and regulatory compliance places the company in a
position of operational and reputational risk. This led airlines to decrease their new
orders, thereby contributing to the decline in the net order total for the years 2023 to
2025. The disruption in the duopoly of Boeing and Airbus concerning narrow-body aircraft
presents a strategic opportunity for China to promote its domestically manufactured C919
and ARJ21 jets, thereby positioning COMAC as a viable alternative in the market. The
current climate of increased uncertainty, coupled with extended delivery backlogs
experienced by industry leaders, presents a pivotal opportunity for the Chinese state-
owned enterprise to secure a substantial share of the global market. A report by
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International Business Aviation (IBA) indicates that the C919 and C909 are projected to
remain particular competitors, constituting approximately 2% of the global fleet by 2030.
However, their introduction signifies a notable beginning in contesting the duopoly held
by Airbus and Boeing. It is anticipated that, within the domestic market, COMAC's share
of new narrow body deliveries to Chinese operators will increase significantly, reaching
around 65% by the year 2030. In the short term, COMAC is solidifying its presence within
China and is poised to expand judiciously into regional markets, leveraging the C909 as
a validated exportable product. Nonetheless, the long-term strategy for the C919 is
contingent upon obtaining international certifications such as those from EASA, which are
not expected to be achieved before 2028. Should EASA certification be attained and the
C929 widebody commence operations as scheduled in the early 2030s, COMAC aspires
to evolve into a credible competitor across multiple segments, bolstered by political
support and strategic alliances to advance its global objectives (IBA, 2025). According to
graph 3, IBA forecasts that COMAC will increase its aircraft delivery rate to 145 per year
by 2030, indicating consistent advancement in China's goal to develop an independent
commercial aviation industry. IBA’s Insight platform indicate that COMAC is projected to
deliver 50 aircraft in 2025, increasing to 57 in 2026, 79 in 2027, and approximately 90
in 2028, ultimately reaching 145 by the conclusion of the decade. The C919 narrow body
program will predominantly drive deliveries, complemented by the ongoing production of
the C909 regional jet and the advancement of the future C929 widebody aircraft (IBA,
2025). The analysis of the forecast and conditions surrounding duopoly disruption
indicates that COMAC possesses the potential to secure a substantial share of the global
narrow-body market, especially within Asia, by providing an alternative to the
problematic Boeing 737 MAX and the supply-constrained Airbus A320 Family. The
strategic opportunity enables the Chinese state-owned enterprise to expedite its delivery
timeline, with projections indicating an output of 145 aircraft annually by 2030, primarily
propelled by the C919 program.
Graph 3. COMAC Fleet Evolution
Source: IBA. (2025, September 17). COMAC Aircraft Programmes - Status & Outlook.
International Business Aviation (IBA) Group. https://www.iba.aero/resources/articles/comac-
aircraft-programmes-status-outlook/
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Conclusions
The study findings indicate that the Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China (COMAC),
functioning as a state-owned enterprise, is instrumental in China's aviation diplomacy
strategy across Asia. This approach utilizes the C919 and ARJ21 aircraft programs as
instruments for fostering economic growth in China and enhancing its global influence.
The primary method of implementing this plan involves extensive advertising efforts,
which encompass participation in significant events such as the Singapore Airshow 2024,
as well as conducting demonstration trips in Laos, Vietnam, and Malaysia. The
aforementioned initiatives have yielded tangible outcomes, exemplified by TransNusa in
Indonesia utilizing the ARJ21 for its inaugural international operation. This marks the
inaugural instance of a Chinese-manufactured aircraft being utilized beyond the borders
of China. Furthermore, airlines such as GallopAir in Brunei and VietJet in Vietnam have
made substantial future orders. The aforementioned results illustrate China's strategic
utilization of its expanding aerospace sector to enhance its international relationships and
bolster its increasing influence within the global commercial aviation market.
China has employed aviation diplomacy alongside direct sales and marketing initiatives.
This is governed by regulations established by the Civil Aviation Administration of China.
This entails establishing bilateral aviation safety agreements with Indonesia and Brunei
to mutually agree upon and accept standards pertaining to airworthiness. Regulatory
diplomacy deals with the structural problem that comes from the fact that the FAA and
EASA do not give international certification. In conclusion, the integrated approach that
combines COMAC's commercial promotion efforts with the regulatory initiatives of the
CAAC establishes civil aviation cooperation as an essential means for China to
demonstrate its technological capabilities, soft power, and geopolitical influence in the
Asian landscape.
Latecomer powers like COMAC have a strategic opportunity as the Boeing–Airbus duopoly
in global commercial aviation faces structural pressure. The Boeing 737 MAX crisis,
supply chain interruptions, and certification delays have exposed Western-centered
aerospace order weaknesses. China has strategically seen this as a geopolitical turning
point, not just a market fluctuation. Beijing is promoting the C919 and ARJ21 through
commercial promotion and regulatory diplomacy to present its aircraft sector as an
industrial alternative and a normative challenger to certification hierarchies. China is
using aviation as a tool of techno-industrial statecraft to reshape global aviation
governance, not only for market dominance. COMAC becoming a credible competitor
therefore signals more than competitive diversification—it represents a gradual
redistribution of technological legitimacy and geopolitical influence within the
international civil aviation system.
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