OBSERVARE
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 2, TD3
Thematic Dossier
Rule of Law, Human Rights, and Institutional
Transformation in Times of Global and National Challenges
March 2026
293
THE IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR NATIONAL SECURITY:
LEGAL ASPECTS, RISK MODELS AND MECHANISMS OF STATE MANAGEMENT OF
SECURITY
SERHII BIELAI
belwz3@ukr.net
Doctor of Science in Public Administration, Professor Deputy Head of the Educational and
Scientific Center for the Organization of the Educational Process Head of the Scientific and
Methodological Department, National Academy of the National Guard of Ukraine
Kharkiv (Ukraine) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0841-9522
OLEKSANDR PIVNENKO
halk.enemigo@gmail.com
National Guard of Ukraine Commander Main Headquarters of the National Guard of Ukraine
Kyiv (Ukraine) https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3528-609X
VADYM YEVSIEIEV
ua117@ukr.net
PhD in Military Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Center Retraining and Advanced
Training Center, National Academy of the National Guard of Ukraine
Kharkiv (Ukraine) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0164-2991
VADYM HLADKOV
vadimgs1806@gmail.com
First Deputy (Chief of Staff) of the Commander of the National Guard of Ukraine, Main
Headquarters of the National Guard of Ukraine
Kyiv (Ukraine) https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3705-1974
IVAN LAVROV
johnapleased417@gmail.com
Postgraduate and Doctoral Studies, National Academy of the National Guard of Ukraine
Kharkiv (Ukraine) https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0706-3711
Abstract
In Ukraine, where the war creates additional challenges, the rapid restoration and adaptation
of critical infrastructure form the basis of the national security field. Between February 2022
and the end of 2023, more than 1,200 major cyberattacks were recorded in Ukraine,
approximately 40% of which were directed against energy and communication systems, and
the damage from missile and drone strikes on infrastructure exceeded $137 billion. The
purpose of this article is to analyze the functionality of legal support critical infrastructure in
the national security system in the current context of military challenges. The study examines
the structure of legal aspects, support critical infrastructure and its place in the overall security
system of the state. Various risk assessment methods are analyzed, such as system models,
multi-level models, and cybernetic models, which help predict possible crisis situations and
plan measures to prevent or mitigate damage. It is argued that resilience can be enhanced
through digital technologies, cybersecurity measures, legal reforms, and better coordination
between public and private organizations. The prospects for optimizing the state of critical
infrastructure in Ukraine are considered, including diversification of supply, modernization of
the energy system, improvement of legislation in accordance with European requirements,
and improvement of the investment climate. A generalized author’s model for managing the
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 2, TD3
Thematic Dossier - Rule of Law, Human Rights, and Institutional
Transformation in Times of Global and National Challenges
March 2026, pp. 293-314
The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
Serhii Bielai, Oleksandr Pivnenko, Vadym Yevsieiev, Vadym Hladkov, Ivan Lavrov
294
resilience of critical infrastructure in Ukraine during times of increased risk of war is proposed.
The study emphasizes the importance of the legal aspects resilience of critical infrastructure,
its ability to recover quickly, and highlights the role of cooperation between the public and
private sectors.
Keywords
Critical infrastructure, national security, risks, resilience, international experience, legal
aspects.
Resumo
Na Ucrânia, onde a guerra cria desafios adicionais, a rápida restauração e adaptação de
infraestruturas críticas constituem a base do domínio da segurança nacional. Entre fevereiro
de 2022 e o final de 2023, foram registados mais de 1200 ciberataques de grande dimensão
na Ucrânia, dos quais aproximadamente 40% foram dirigidos contra sistemas energéticos e
de comunicação, e os danos causados por ataques com mísseis e drones às infraestruturas
excederam os 137 mil milhões de dólares. O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a funcionalidade
do apoio jurídico às infraestruturas críticas no sistema de segurança nacional no contexto
atual de desafios militares. O estudo examina a estrutura dos aspetos jurídicos, o apoio às
infraestruturas críticas e o seu lugar no sistema geral de segurança do Estado. São analisados
vários métodos de avaliação de riscos, tais como modelos de sistema, modelos multiníveis e
modelos cibernéticos, que ajudam a prever possíveis situações de crise e a planear medidas
para prevenir ou mitigar danos. Argumenta-se que a resiliência pode ser reforçada através de
tecnologias digitais, medidas de cibersegurança, reformas jurídicas e uma melhor
coordenação entre organizações públicas e privadas. São consideradas as perspetivas de
otimização do estado das infraestruturas críticas na Ucrânia, incluindo a diversificação do
abastecimento, a modernização do sistema energético, a melhoria da legislação em
conformidade com os requisitos europeus e a melhoria do clima de investimento. É proposto
um modelo generalizado do autor para gerir a resiliência das infraestruturas críticas na
Ucrânia em tempos de risco acrescido de guerra. O estudo enfatiza a importância dos aspetos
jurídicos da resiliência das infraestruturas críticas, a sua capacidade de recuperação rápida e
destaca o papel da cooperação entre os setores público e privado.
Palavras-chave
Infraestruturas críticas, segurança nacional, riscos, resiliência, experiência internacional,
aspetos jurídicos.
How to cite this article
Bielai, Serhii Pivnenko, Oleksandr, Yevsieiev, Vadym, Hladkov, Vadym & Lavrov, Ivan (2026). The
Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of State
Management of Security. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier - Rule of
Law, Human Rights, and Institutional Transformation in Times of Global and National Challenges,
VOL. 16, Nº. 2, TD3, March 2026, pp. 293-314. https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0226.16
Article submitted on 23 November 2025 and accepted for publication on 08 January
2026.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 2, TD3
Thematic Dossier - Rule of Law, Human Rights, and Institutional
Transformation in Times of Global and National Challenges
March 2026, pp. 293-314
The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
Serhii Bielai, Oleksandr Pivnenko, Vadym Yevsieiev, Vadym Hladkov, Ivan Lavrov
295
THE IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR
NATIONAL SECURITY RISK MODELS AND MECHANISMS OF STATE
MANAGEMENT OF SECURITY
SERHII BIELAI
OLEKSANDR PIVNENKO
VADYM YEVSIEIEV
VADYM HLADKOV
IVAN LAVROV
Introduction
Critical infrastructure, which includes energy, transportation, financial, information and
communication systems, directly affects national security, as its failure or destruction
can lead to serious consequences that threaten the sovereignty, territorial integrity and
functioning of the state. The destruction of critical infrastructure causes uneven economic
development, regional imbalance, outflow of financial and intellectual capital, growing
social polarization, slowdown in innovation and investment, and increased environmental
problems.
During the war in Ukraine, the risks of damage to critical infrastructure facilities are
becoming alarming. According to the Business Ombudsman Council, more than 700
critical infrastructure facilities were damaged in 2022 alone. The government of Ukraine,
together with the World Bank Group, the European Commission and the United Nations,
published a report on an updated joint assessment of the damage and needs resulting
from the large-scale invasion of Russia – Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment, RDNA3
(World Bank Group, 2024). The RDNA3 assessment covers the damage caused during
the almost two-year period from the moment of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine
on February 24, 2022, to December 31, 2023. According to the report, direct losses in
Ukraine have so far reached nearly $152 billion, with housing, transportation, trade and
industry, energy, and agriculture identified as the most affected sectors. The destruction
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 2, TD3
Thematic Dossier - Rule of Law, Human Rights, and Institutional
Transformation in Times of Global and National Challenges
March 2026, pp. 293-314
The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
Serhii Bielai, Oleksandr Pivnenko, Vadym Yevsieiev, Vadym Hladkov, Ivan Lavrov
296
of the Kakhovka hydroelectric dam in June 2023 led to catastrophic environmental
consequences and exacerbated social problems.
Such challenges create a need for new approaches to legal support for public
administration in the security sector, which must take into account the complex nature
of threats to critical infrastructure and the need for rapid response. The aim of this work
is to analyze the functionality of the legal aspects of critical infrastructure support in the
national security system and to propose the author's concept for the formation of
effective mechanisms for its protection in the conditions of martial law in Ukraine.
Literature Review
Scientists Obi et al. (2024), Ingvarson and Hassel (2023), as a result of their research
on the multifactorial impact of critical infrastructure on the state of national security,
identified the main vectors of such impact: resilience to threats (cyberattacks, physical
destruction); recovery capacity; economic consequences (losses from damage to
infrastructure and a long interruption in its functioning); societal life; defense capability
dynamics; state stability, trust in the government and prevention of social conflicts. The
researchers emphasize that it is important to take into account the cascading effect of
threats, when the failure of one element affects the entire security system.
Lubis et al. (2025) explored the possibilities of quantifying the impact of critical
infrastructure on national security and identified the main aspects of measurement,
including quantifying damage and financial losses, vulnerability analysis (assessing the
weaknesses of critical infrastructure that could potentially be affected), monitoring the
functioning of systems to identify failures and their causes, and modeling the potential
consequences of threats to critical infrastructure.
A number of scholars, in particular, Jada and Mayayise (2024), Saeed et al. (2023),
emphasize the need to raise awareness of public sector employees about information
security standards to prevent the risks of damage to critical infrastructure: ensuring the
uninterrupted operation of facilities, preventing unauthorized interference, predicting
crisis situations and preventing their negative impact. Furthermore, the scientists argue
for the need to establish cooperation between the public sector, the public and business
in the context of common interests in combating cyber threats, emphasizing the need for
interagency coordination and public-private partnerships to improve system reliability.
Kalapodis et al. (2025) promote innovative IDS systems for detecting attack traffic,
arguing that if more protection resources are invested in critical infrastructure, the ability
to resist intrusions can be significantly higher.
Erbas et al. (2024), Paravantis and Kontoulis (2020), studying models for assessing risks
and levels of impact on national security, concluded that the most effective assessment
models for determining the likelihood of hazards and potential consequences (losses)
from the realization of risks are statistical methods, expert assessments, simulation
modeling, decision tree, sensitivity analysis, scenario analysis, as well as calculation and
analytical and similar methods.
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March 2026, pp. 293-314
The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
Serhii Bielai, Oleksandr Pivnenko, Vadym Yevsieiev, Vadym Hladkov, Ivan Lavrov
297
The publications of Eusgeld et al. (2011), Große (2021), Li et al. (2022) are considered
relevant, where it is established that the protection of critical infrastructure includes
activities to identify, prevent and neutralize threats, as well as minimize and eliminate
the consequences of their implementation. The authors outline the boundaries of
stakeholder responsibility in this context: the state determines the national policy in the
field, forms legislative requirements and coordinates the work of the national critical
infrastructure protection system; at the same time, owners (operators) are responsible
for ensuring an adequate level of security of facilities, developing and implementing
protection measures, as well as cyber defense.
Dimitropoulos (2020), Rass et al. (2020) proposed a number of methods for modeling
security threats based on risk forecasting. The main approaches to threat modeling are
as follows: threat modeling frameworks (e.g., TRIKE), including structured analysis and
documentation of threats; analysis of risks and vulnerabilities, followed by an assessment
of their consequences; prioritization of preventive countermeasures; development of a
potential breach model to study and predict behavior, potential motives and methods of
attacks.
Despite the significant scientific developments, the issue of rethinking the role of critical
infrastructure in the national security system in wartime requires expanded research and
the development of effective protection mechanisms.
Methodology
To achieve the stated research objective, a comprehensive methodological framework
combining general scientific, special legal, and interdisciplinary methods was applied.
This approach ensured a systematic and multifaceted analysis of the legal, organizational,
and risk-related aspects of critical infrastructure protection within the national security
system of Ukraine under wartime conditions.
The analytical method was used to systematize existing scientific approaches,
international standards, and doctrinal positions concerning the role of critical
infrastructure in ensuring national security. This method made it possible to identify key
legal categories, regulatory gaps, and structural weaknesses in the current system of
state management of critical infrastructure security.
The systemic and structural-functional methods were applied to examine critical
infrastructure as an integrated element of the national security system, characterized by
interdependence between energy, transport, communication, digital, and defense-related
sectors. These methods allowed for the identification of functional links between legal
regulation, institutional mechanisms, and practical security measures.
The comparative legal method was used to analyze Ukrainian legislation in the field of
critical infrastructure protection in comparison with European Union legal acts, NATO
resilience standards, and international best practices. This enabled the assessment of the
level of harmonization of national legislation with European requirements and the
identification of priority directions for legal adaptation.
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 2, TD3
Thematic Dossier - Rule of Law, Human Rights, and Institutional
Transformation in Times of Global and National Challenges
March 2026, pp. 293-314
The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
Serhii Bielai, Oleksandr Pivnenko, Vadym Yevsieiev, Vadym Hladkov, Ivan Lavrov
298
The modeling method played a key role in assessing potential crisis scenarios and risks
to critical infrastructure. System models, multi-level risk models, and cybernetic models
were applied to simulate the impact of military, cyber, and hybrid threats, as well as to
evaluate the resilience and recovery capacity of infrastructure systems under conditions
of large-scale disruption.
The risk assessment and scenario analysis methods were employed to classify threats,
determine their probability and potential consequences, and evaluate vulnerability levels
across different infrastructure sectors. These methods supported the development of
preventive and mitigation strategies aimed at enhancing infrastructure resilience.
The methods of synthesis and logical generalization were used to formulate an author’s
conceptual model of state management of critical infrastructure resilience during periods
of heightened military risk. This model integrates legal regulation, cybersecurity
measures, institutional coordination, and public–private partnership mechanisms.
In addition, content analysis of legal acts, strategic documents, and policy papers was
conducted to identify prevailing regulatory approaches and emerging trends in critical
infrastructure protection.
The limitations of the study are related to the restricted availability of classified data, the
complexity of empirical verification of security models under wartime conditions, and
potential regional bias due to uneven levels of infrastructure damage and restoration.
Nevertheless, the applied methodological toolkit provides a sufficient basis for
substantiated conclusions and practical recommendations aimed at strengthening the
legal and institutional framework for critical infrastructure protection in Ukraine.
Results
Critical infrastructure is defined as a set of facilities, systems, and networks whose
disruption has a significant impact on the security and stability of the state. It includes
the energy sector, transportation systems, information and communication technologies,
financial sector, and healthcare. In the scientific literature, the concept of “critical
infrastructure” is interpreted as a multi-level system with a high degree of
interdependence.
The full-scale war has shown the vulnerability of Ukraine’s critical infrastructure and its
direct impact on the overall security context on a national scale. From February 2022 to
the end of 2023 alone, more than 63 thousand energy facilities were damaged, with total
direct losses in the energy sector estimated at USD 8.8 billion. In the transport sector,
more than 23.5 thousand kilometers of roads and more than 340 bridges were destroyed;
in the healthcare sector, more than 1.5 thousand institutions were affected, 204 of which
were completely destroyed; in cyberspace, more than 4.3 thousand incidents were
recorded in 2024 alone (State Statistics Service of Ukraine, 2024). As of 2025, the
intensity of threats to critical infrastructure continues to grow, with hybrid attacks
affecting various areas gaining particular popularity (Figure 1) (Ilyenko et al., 2025).
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March 2026, pp. 293-314
The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
Serhii Bielai, Oleksandr Pivnenko, Vadym Yevsieiev, Vadym Hladkov, Ivan Lavrov
299
Figure 1. National security and critical infrastructure
Source: (Ilyenko et al., 2025)
Each element of the national security system performs a unique function, and the
vulnerability of one segment can create a cascading effect (Novotny & Janosikova, 2020;
Roshanaei, 2021). At the same time, cyberspace risks are of particular importance, along
with other categories of critical infrastructure risks (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Risks of Critical Infrastructure
Source: created by the author based on Tzavara and Vassiliadis (2024)
National Security
Energy
Healthcare
Water Supply
Finance
Transport
IT/
Communication
Social
risks
Critical Infrastructure
Cyber
risks
Military
risks
Natural
risks
Technological
risks
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The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
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300
The information in Figure 2 emphasizes the multidimensional nature of the risks of critical
infrastructure destruction and highlights the urgent need to improve mechanisms for its
protection, as economic stability, defense capability, and the level of social stability are
largely determined by the security of the critical infrastructure system (Yefimenko et al.,
2023; Tzavara & Vassiliadis, 2024). For example, in the European Union, critical
infrastructure is defined in accordance with Directive 2008/114/EC, which emphasizes
the transnational nature of threats, and NATO pays considerable attention to cyber
defense and common approaches to ensuring the resilience of member states
(Abgarowicz et al., 2014). Israel has strong cyber defenses and centralized threat
management, while Canada focuses on inter-agency coordination and working with
private companies. In all countries, an integrated approach that combines legal,
organizational, and technological mechanisms is important (Grigalashvili & Abiashvili,
2021). Studying these practices allows us to adapt them to national conditions and form
a more effective protection system in Ukraine.
Military security processes are regulated in accordance with the Constitution of Ukraine,
the Laws of Ukraine “On National Security of Ukraine,” “On the National Security and
Defense Council of Ukraine,” “On Defense of Ukraine,” “On Intelligence,” “On the
Principles of Domestic and Foreign Policy,” “On the Armed Forces of Ukraine,” as well as
the Decrees of the President of Ukraine “On Issues of the National Security and Defense
Council of Ukraine,” “On the Decision of the National Security and Defense Council of
Ukraine of September 14, 2020, ”On the National Security Strategy of Ukraine,“ ”On the
Decision of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine of March 25, 2021, “On
the Military Security Strategy of Ukraine,” “On the Decision of the National Security and
Defense Council of Ukraine of August 20, 2021 ”On the Strategic Defense Bulletin of
Ukraine“ and Resolutions of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine ”On Approval of the
Regulations on the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine,“ ”On Approval of the Procedure for
Conducting a Defense Review of the Ministry of Defense”.
As for Ukraine, the state policy in this area is aimed at predicting threats, preventing
crises, reducing risks, and ensuring rapid restoration of facilities in the event of attacks
or accidents. Ukraine’s regulatory framework defines the legal basis for the protection of
critical infrastructure. It includes laws, government regulations and strategic documents
in the field of national security. The requirements of international standards and EU
directives are partially implemented. There are gaps in the harmonization of legislation
with international norms. The need to modernize the legal framework is a key factor in
improving the effectiveness of system protection (Herasymenko & Siryi, 2025).
Critical infrastructure is managed by institutions and organizations. Institutions include
central bodies and committees. Financial mechanisms include public funding for
protection measures and incentives for private investment. Legal mechanisms regulate
liability and control over compliance with security standards. The joint application of
these mechanisms allows for the integration of resources and optimization of
management processes (Demirel et al., 2022).
Risks to critical infrastructure are multifactorial in nature and are classified by source.
Natural risks include natural disasters, climate change, and epidemics. Technological
risks include accidents at industrial enterprises, transportation, and the energy sector.
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The Importance of Critical Infrastructure for National Security Risk Models and Mechanisms of
State Management of Security
Serhii Bielai, Oleksandr Pivnenko, Vadym Yevsieiev, Vadym Hladkov, Ivan Lavrov
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Social risks are associated with mass protests, terrorist attacks, and other forms of social
destabilization (Ivaniuta et al., 2024). Cyber threats are particularly dangerous because
they disrupt digital systems and can paralyze infrastructure networks. Military risks
become crucial in the context of hostilities and hybrid aggression. Risk classification
allows to systematize threats and develop a comprehensive strategy to prevent them
(Table 1).
Table 1. Classification of critical infrastructure risks
Type of risk
Examples of threats
Potential consequences
Natural
Floods, earthquakes, epidemics
Destruction of facilities, disruption
of vital services
Technological
Industrial accidents, transportation
disasters, power outages
Economic losses, environmental
pollution, human casualties
Social
Mass protests, terrorist attacks, social
destabilization
Threat to the security of citizens,
destabilization of state institutions
Cybernetic
Hacker attacks, cyber espionage,
blocking of digital networks
Paralysis of infrastructure systems,
data leakage, destabilization of
information
Military
Missile and drone attacks, hybrid
aggression, sabotage
Destruction of infrastructure,
reduction of defense capabilities,
large-scale crises
Source: compiled by the author
Table 2. Models of critical infrastructure risk analysis
Model
Characteristics
Advantages
Limitations
Systemic
Considers infrastructure as
a single interconnected
system
Allows to assess
cascading effects
Difficult to apply in
practice
Multi-level
Analyzes risks at the
facility, regional and
national levels
Provides a detailed
assessment of threats
at different levels
Requires a large
amount of data
Cybersecurity
Focuses on information
flows and system
management
Takes into account
digital technologies and
cybersecurity
Limited to non-digital
threats
Source: compiled by the author
Risk analysis models are an important tool for threat forecasting and defense planning.
The cyber model is based on the view of infrastructure as a complex control system
where information exchange plays a key role. The system model analyzes the
interdependence of all elements and their vulnerability to external influences. The multi-
level model involves risk assessment at different levels, from an individual facility to the
national system. Such approaches allow identifying both direct and indirect consequences
of potential threats (Cherdantseva et al., 2016). The use of models contributes to the
development of effective risk management mechanisms and enhanced infrastructure
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resilience. The choice of a particular model depends on the specifics of the sector and the
nature of potential risks (Table 2).
The development of critical infrastructure crises has different scenarios depending on the
scale and nature of the threats. One scenario involves a localized disruption of a single
facility with limited impact. Another scenario involves the cascading spread of the crisis
to other infrastructure sectors (Heino et al., 2019). A systemic scenario is particularly
dangerous when several sectors are disrupted simultaneously. In such circumstances,
the state faces the risk of paralyzing key governance and life support functions. The
consequences of crisis scenarios include economic losses, social instability, and reduced
defense capabilities. The analysis of possible scenarios allows predicting risks and
formulating preventive response measures (Krylova & Hlushchenko, 2025).
The digitalization of critical infrastructure increases the efficiency of management and
control by providing prompt data collection on the state of systems and possible threats.
Monitoring helps to detect and respond to problems in a timely manner, and the use of
digital tools increases the resilience of systems and reduces the cascading effects of
failures. Thus, digitalization, monitoring, and cybersecurity form the basis of modern
critical infrastructure risk management (Lubis et al., 2025).
Modern risk management systems are focused not only on preventing threats, but also
on ensuring rapid recovery. The concept of resilience implies the ability of critical
infrastructure to withstand and adapt to crisis impacts. It includes preventive measures,
monitoring, crisis response, and recovery from incidents. The key principle is an
integrated approach that covers organizational, technological and legal levels. The ISO
22301 and NIST standards governing business continuity management are important for
implementing this concept. The use of resilience models minimizes cascading effects and
increases the reliability of systems (Rehak et al., 2025).
Critical infrastructure protection is impossible without the interaction of the state and
business. Most infrastructure facilities are owned by private operators, which increases
the importance of partnership models. Public-private partnerships involve joint
responsibility for risk management and implementation of security measures. It is
important to exchange information between the entities, including data on threats and
incidents. Such interaction increases the effectiveness of response and optimizes the use
of resources. Examples of partnership initiatives demonstrate the interest of business in
ensuring resilience (Ampratwum et al., 2022).
The full-scale war has created unprecedented threats to Ukraine’s critical infrastructure.
Massive missile and drone strikes have targeted energy, transportation, and
communications. Systematic attacks lead to disruptions in the operation of infrastructure
networks and a decrease in the level of life support for the population. The war increases
the vulnerability of cyberspace as digital systems become targets of cyberattacks. A
particular challenge is the cascading nature of threats, when damage to one sector leads
to disruption of other sectors. At the same time, there is a growing need to quickly restore
destroyed facilities and ensure their resilience. Thus, the war is shaping a new reality in
which the protection of critical infrastructure is a priority for the state (Ivaniuta et al.,
2024).
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Ukraine declares its desire to harmonize its infrastructure protection system with
European and international standards. However, the implementation process faces a
number of challenges. The regulatory framework is fragmented and needs to be updated
in line with EU and NATO requirements, and government agencies do not have sufficient
resources to fully manage risks. Insufficient funding limits infrastructure modernization
and cyber defense, making it difficult to implement international approaches.
The main task of creating a comprehensive strategy for the protection of critical
infrastructure should be to strengthen coordination between government agencies and
the private sector to implement modern resilience standards, create a national cyber
defense system, and train specialists (Adegbite et al., 2023).
The energy infrastructure is currently one of the most affected sectors, in particular in
terms of the amount of damage caused. In general, the destruction of critical energy,
industrial and civilian infrastructure has led to increased security risks, slower
investment, and slower socioeconomic development. As of 2024, the amount of direct
losses caused by the destruction of infrastructure during the full-scale invasion of Ukraine
by Russia between February 2022 and the end of 2023 exceeded 137 billion USD (Figure
3).
Figure 3. Direct losses from the destruction of infrastructure in Ukraine during the full-scale war
of the Russian Federation, billion USD February 2022 – end of 2023
Source: systematized on the basis of the State Statistics Service of Ukraine (2024)
As Figure 3 shows, industrial, energy, and civilian infrastructure suffered the greatest
destruction. This situation requires significant financial injections, periodic transfers, and
the implementation of a strategy to increase the resilience of energy security.
Ukraine has significant potential in the development of renewable energy, which can
strengthen the resilience of energy infrastructure. In order to ensure the fastest possible
3,1
4,5
8,6
2,6
9
13,1
36,8
58,9
0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75,
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balanced development of the industry, Ukraine should deepen the processes of
diversification and deregulation, and create conditions for prompt investment. Today, the
crisis conditions of the war are causing a slowdown in the industry’s development (Figure
4).
Figure 4. Development of renewable energy in Ukraine, MW
Source: compiled by the author based on NKREKP (2024)
As shown in Figure 4, the full-scale war has made adjustments to the strategy of resource
use in the energy sector, as a significant number of alternative energy facilities were
destroyed and damaged in the first year of active hostilities.
In order to regenerate critical infrastructure and increase its resilience in wartime crisis
conditions, government institutions should implement effective investment development
mechanisms, including: war risk insurance for investment projects in priority sectors;
interest-free lending for projects to regenerate destroyed or damaged infrastructure;
support for industrial and infrastructure investment projects; development of
international partnerships; financial incentives for the transfer of green technologies,
etc. In particular, the development of a network of industrial parks is positioned as an
innovative solution for the rapid restoration of destroyed critical infrastructure, which will
contribute to sustainable regional development. This approach will allow for the relocation
of production, increase local budgetary injections, and optimize the investment climate.
It is also important to further develop the processes of decentralization and deregulation,
and to introduce priority models of public-private cooperation.
In addition to the above, it is necessary to use digital technologies and innovative
opportunities for data openness, transparency of decision-making procedures for critical
infrastructure and control over their implementation, and the implementation of the
0
2500
5000
7500
10000
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
2100
6930
8450
9820
5650
4100
3970
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State Management of Security
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305
necessary corrective action. This approach will ensure high rates of post-war
infrastructure regeneration (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Critical Infrastructure Resilience Management Model
Source: Author’s elaboration
Critical infrastructure
Controlling the impact
of internal factors
Analytics, artificial
intelligence
Controlling the impact of
external factors
Strategy and objectives
Political factors
Technological
development
International support of
the environment
Strategic
planning for
sustainability
development
Socio-economic factors
Management system
Development of long-term and
short-term plans
Regulatory and legal
support
Formation of a system of target
indicators
Progress of technology
and science
Management tactics
The concept of
sustainability:
-Normative and
institutional support
-Innovative solutions
- Partnership of
stakeholders: state,
public and business
Digital optimization
Blockchain technologies and big
data analysis
Artificial intelligence
Monitoring and evaluation
of the performance of the
PA
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306
Analyzing Figure 5, it is necessary to note the importance of integrating digital potential,
as electronic information systems allow for the rapid collection and consolidation of
necessary data, making informed and reasonable decisions, monitoring and controlling
performance. The proposed concept will help to increase the resilience of critical
infrastructure, optimize coordination of actions, and strengthen the national security
system as a whole.
The events related to the occupation of Crimea and parts of Donetsk and Luhansk regions
by the Russian Federation in 2014 prompted the improvement of legal regulation in the
field of national critical infrastructure protection in Ukraine. In response to the political
situation that developed in late 2014 and early 2015, on January 27, 2016, the President
of Ukraine signed a decree enacting the decision of the National Security and Defense
Council of Ukraine “On the Cybersecurity Strategy of Ukraine.” This document effectively
marked the beginning of the formation of legal regulation for the protection of critical
infrastructure. The implementation of Ukraine's Cybersecurity Strategy required a
number of changes to national legislation to provide a basis for the implementation of its
provisions and to increase liability for offences in the field of cybersecurity.
In particular, Resolution No. 563 of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated August 23,
2016, approved and enacted the Procedure for forming a list of information and
telecommunications systems of critical infrastructure facilities of the state, which for the
first time provided an official definition of the concept of “critical infrastructure” as a set
of state infrastructure facilities that are most important for the economy and industry,
the functioning of society and the safety of the population, and whose failure or
destruction could affect national security and defense, the natural environment, and lead
to significant financial losses and human casualties.
In order to implement appropriate measures at the national, sectoral, and regional levels
regarding legal and organizational-methodological support, coordination, and
consolidated provision of resources for security systems, the Cabinet of Ministers of
Ukraine, in accordance with the Decision of the National Security and Defense Council of
Ukraine dated December 29, 2016 “On improving measures to protect critical
infrastructure facilities,” developed the Concept for the creation of a state system for the
protection of critical infrastructure in Ukraine, which was put into effect by Order of the
Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 1009-r of December 6, 2017.
In particular, the Concept outlines the main problems in the field of building a state
system for the protection of critical infrastructure:
- insufficiency and inconsistency of regulatory and legal regulation in Ukraine for the
protection of critical infrastructure systems and facilities;
- uncertainty regarding the functions, powers, and responsibilities of central executive
bodies and other bodies in the field of critical infrastructure protection, as well as the
rights, obligations, and responsibilities of owners and operators of critical infrastructure
facilities;
- absence of a state body at the national level responsible for coordinating actions in
the field of critical infrastructure protection, existing state protection systems, and
crisis response;
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307
- absence of a unified methodology for assessing threats and risks to critical
infrastructure, preventing their realization, and responding to threats;
- underdeveloped public-private partnerships and uncertainty regarding sources of
funding for critical infrastructure protection measures;
- lack of uniform criteria and methodology for classifying infrastructure facilities as
critical infrastructure, and for their certification and categorization;
- insufficient level of international cooperation in this area.
In addition, during this period, important legislative and regulatory acts were adopted,
aimed at improving the national security and defense system, in particular, the Law of
Ukraine “On the Basic Principles of Ensuring Cybersecurity of Ukraine” and a number of
sector-specific regulatory acts:
- Procedure for forming a list of information and telecommunications systems of critical
infrastructure facilities of the state;
- Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 519 of 19.06.2019 “On Approval
of General Requirements for Cyber Protection of Critical Infrastructure Facilities”;
- Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 943 of October 9, 2020, “Certain
Issues of Critical Information Infrastructure Facilities”;
- Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 1176 dated November 11, 2020,
“On Approval of the Procedure for Reviewing the State of Cyber Protection of Critical
Infrastructure, State Information Resources, and Information, the Protection of Which
is Required by Law”;
- Resolution of the Board of the National Bank of Ukraine No. 151 dated November 30,
2020, “On Approval of the Regulations on the Identification of Critical Infrastructure
Objects in the Banking System of Ukraine”;
- Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 1295 dated December 23, 2020,
“Certain Issues of Ensuring the Functioning of the System for Identifying Vulnerabilities
and Responding to Cyber Incidents and Cyber Attacks”;
- Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 519 dated June 19, 2019, “On
Approval of General Requirements for Cyber Protection of Critical Infrastructure
Objects”;
- Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 1109 dated October 9, 2020,
“Certain Issues of Critical Information Infrastructure Facilities”;
- Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 1426 dated December 29, 2021,
“On Approval of the Regulations on the Organizational and Technical Model of Cyber
Protection.”
The concept of “critical infrastructure facility” first appeared in the Law of Ukraine “On
the Basic Principles of Ensuring Cyber Security of Ukraine,” but the subject of its
regulation is, to a large extent, highly specialized.
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308
With the start of Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the process of developing a
national CII protection system has accelerated significantly. During this period, the main
legislative act regulating this activity was enacted – Law of Ukraine No. 1882-IX of
November 16, 2021, “On Critical Infrastructure,” which came into force only on June 15,
2022. With the adoption of this law, the organizational structure of the CII protection
system was outlined at the legislative level; the mechanism for forming the composition
of CII was defined by regulation, which created the legal basis for the proper organization
of CII and its protection.
The European Union's Global Strategy on Foreign and Security Policy, adopted in 2016,
determines the EU's activities in the context of addressing energy security, hybrid
transnational threats, migration, and climate change. Among its strategic priorities, the
Strategy highlights an integrated approach to crisis management, enhancing the region's
defense capabilities, ensuring stability, and developing international cooperation. The
Strategy defines the key principles of the EU's positioning in the international arena,
namely, upholding the rules of the global order and promoting peace. Ukraine has the
potential to be a guarantor of stability in the European region. With active support from
the EU and the US, it will be able to realize its own regional ambitions and implement
systemic reforms at the state level. At the same time, the process requires adequate
security guarantees, which must be formed within the framework of a single effective
national security concept.
Discussion
The results show that critical infrastructure is a system of interconnected elements. This
is in line with international studies that emphasize the growing role of digital security
(Almahmoud et al., 2025). The risk analysis models proposed by the authors
demonstrate different levels of effectiveness: the systemic approach allows for the
interdependence of sectors, the multi-level model provides details at the facility, regional,
and national levels, and the cyber model reveals the role of information flows in system
stability. Comparing the findings of scientists with the results of the current study proves
the need for a comprehensive combination of approaches.
The effectiveness of practical tools, such as risk and resilience management, is proved
by Mitra et al. (2024). In the context of Ukraine, their implementation is hampered by
insufficient funding and weak coordination. Public-private partnerships are promising, but
need to be strengthened. At the same time, international experience shows that an
integration approach provides the highest protection efficiency.
The results of Khrapkina and Metelenko (2025) show the potential for developing the
system based on modern risk management models. At the same time, the Ukrainian
context requires the adaptation of international standards and the rapid restoration of
facilities and their resilience. Obviously, regulatory shortcomings and institutional
constraints hinder progress.
In the scientific discourse, the issue of damage to critical infrastructure in wartime has
been addressed in publications by Guarini et al. (2021), De Rosa and et al. (2022). In
particular, the authors emphasize the scale of Russian attacks on critical infrastructure,
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309
including energy and healthcare systems, and conclude that the main risks point to the
need to strengthen resilience for uninterrupted operation. At the same time, Gunawan
and Pane (2024) analyze the problem in the context of legal protection, institutional
support for assessing damages from the party responsible for the destruction of
infrastructure, as well as international guarantees in this regard.
The research of Pacek and Pacek (2023), Gunawan and Pane (2024), Alcaraz and
Zeadally (2015) correlates with the results of the current article on the importance of
supporting investment regeneration projects and creating security guarantees for critical
infrastructure as a basis for socio-economic development.
Thus, the study confirms the strategic role of legal aspects critical infrastructure in the
national security system. At the same time, it reveals a gap between international
practices and Ukrainian reality. Further research should focus on developing flexible
coordination and financing mechanisms.
Conclusions
Critical infrastructure is a key element of national security, ensuring the stability of
society and the functioning of state institutions. The analysis of the theoretical and
methodological foundations of legal support for the industry has shown that critical
infrastructure is a multi-level system with interdependent components. International
experience confirms the importance of a comprehensive approach to its protection and
implementation of resilience standards.
The study of risks has shown that they are multidimensional and include natural, man-
made, social, cyber and military threats. The use of risk analysis models makes it possible
to predict consequences and develop preventive measures. Crisis scenarios demonstrate
the state’s readiness to respond quickly and restore the system’s functioning, primarily
through effective legal support.
Practical protection tools, such as risk and resilience management systems, increase the
efficiency of public administration. Public-private partnerships help coordinate and
optimize resources. International best practices show the importance of an integrated
approach that includes legal, organizational, and technological mechanisms. The
Ukrainian context is characterized by the increased vulnerability of critical infrastructure
in times of war. The implementation of international standards is complicated by
regulatory, institutional and financial constraints. All of this must be reflected in the
national legislative framework and legal support institutions.
Suggestions for improvement include improvement of legal regulationpolicies to
strengthen coordination, introduce modern risk management models, develop cyber
defense, and improve the legal framework. Implementing these measures will increase
the resilience of critical infrastructure, minimize the risks of cascading effects, and ensure
national security. An integrated approach based on theoretical models, practical tools,
and international experience forms the basis for strategic development and effective
management in the industry’s legal framework.
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