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Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa
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THE ROLE OF COOPERATIVES IN REGIONAL INTEGRATION: A PERSPECTIVE
FROM THE WESTERN BALKANS
RUI SAMARCOS LORA
ruisamarcos@gmail.com
PhD Fellow at the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), former Fellow at the Tokyo
Foundation for Policy Research (SYLFF). He holds a degree in International Relations (UniCEUB)
and is a Specialist in Political Science from the University of Brasília (UnB). Lora holds a Master's
degree in International Relations and European Studies from the University of Évora. He is
currently a doctoral candidate at the Center for Social Studies-CES / Faculty of Economics
(FEUC) at the University of Coimbra (Portugal). He is a member of the Hannah Arendt Center for
Politics and the Humanities at Bard College (HAC).
Abstract
This paper investigates the pivotal role of cooperatives in facilitating regional integration, with
a focus on the Western Balkans region. Utilizing insights drawn from the European integration
process and the unique dynamics of the Western Balkans, this study delves into the
multifaceted ways in which cooperatives contribute to various facets of regional integration,
encompassing rural development, agriculture, employment, social inclusion, and energy.
Through an analysis of projects and initiatives involving cooperatives in the region, it becomes
apparent that these entities serve as inconspicuous yet crucial local actors, driving socio-
economic advancement and fostering cross-border collaboration. Despite encountering
challenges such as legal frameworks and historical contexts, cooperatives significantly
influence the promotion of bottom-up approaches to integration, thereby amplifying the
participation of local stakeholders in the process. By leveraging fundamental principles
inherent to cooperativism, including solidarity and democratic governance, these
organizations facilitate dialogue, trust-building, and sustainable development, thereby
furthering the overarching objectives of regional integration. This paper underscores the
imperative for greater acknowledgment of cooperatives as possible stakeholders in regional
integration processes and advocates for policies aimed at bolstering their engagement and
empowerment.
Keywords
Cooperatives, Regional Integration, Western Balkans, local turn, Rural development.
Resumo
Este artigo analisa o papel fundamental das cooperativas na facilitação da integração regional,
com foco na região dos Balcãs Ocidentais. Utilizando insights extraídos do processo de
integração europeia e da dinâmica única dos Balcãs Ocidentais, este estudo aprofunda as
formas multifacetadas pelas quais as cooperativas contribuem para várias facetas da
integração regional, abrangendo o desenvolvimento rural, a agricultura, o emprego, a inclusão
social e a energia. Através de uma análise de projetos e iniciativas envolvendo cooperativas
na região, torna-se evidente que estas entidades atuam como atores locais discretos, mas
cruciais, impulsionando o avanço socioeconómico e promovendo a colaboração
transfronteiriça. Apesar de enfrentarem desafios como quadros jurídicos e contextos
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 2
November 2025-April 2026, pp. 255-271
The role of Cooperatives in Regional Integration: A Perspective from the Western Balkans
Rui Samarcos Lora
256
históricos, as cooperativas influenciam significativamente a promoção de abordagens de
integração de baixo para cima, ampliando assim a participação das partes interessadas locais
no processo. Ao alavancar princípios fundamentais inerentes ao cooperativismo, incluindo a
solidariedade e a governação democrática, estas organizações facilitam o diálogo, a
construção de confiança e o desenvolvimento sustentável, promovendo assim os objetivos
gerais da integração regional. Este documento sublinha a necessidade imperativa de um maior
reconhecimento das cooperativas como possíveis partes interessadas nos processos de
integração regional e defende políticas destinadas a reforçar o seu envolvimento e
capacitação.
Palavras-chave
Cooperativas, integração regional, Balcãs Ocidentais, viragem local, desenvolvimento rural.
How to cite this article
Lora, Rui Samarcos (2025). The role of Cooperatives in Regional Integration: A Perspective from
the Western Balkans. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. VOL. 16, Nº. 2, November
2025-April 2026, pp. 255-271. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.16.2.14
Article submitted on 16th September 2024 and accepted for publication on 8th
September 2025.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 2
November 2025-April 2026, pp. 255-271
The role of Cooperatives in Regional Integration: A Perspective from the Western Balkans
Rui Samarcos Lora
257
THE ROLE OF COOPERATIVES IN REGIONAL INTEGRATION: A
PERSPECTIVE FROM THE WESTERN BALKANS
RUI SAMARCOS LORA
The integration process in the Western Balkans is guided by two main strategies. The
first strategy revolves around the European Union’s bilateral approach, wherein each
candidate country must individually fulfill specific requirements. The second strategy
involves the European Union’s enlargement conditionality for candidate nations, which
includes fulfilling stipulated criteria and establishing parallel structures under EU
sponsorship. Additionally, multilateral intra-regional initiatives, such as the integration of
the Western Balkans itself, complement these strategies. The overarching aim is for these
inter and intra-regional approaches to mutually reinforce one another, facilitating
smoother accession processes to the European Union for Western Balkan countries.
Ultimately, this approach aims to foster initial enlargement among these nations, aligning
them closely with the EU’s four freedoms of the market and its acquis communautaire,
thus promoting closer integration with the European Union.
Within this outlined integration framework for the Western Balkans, the post-war context
is paramount, particularly in rural areas, which faced a devastated economy and
inadequate infrastructure (Van Houtte 1999:625-638). Cooperativism emerges as a
viable crisis management alternative (Vieta and Lionais 2015:32), capable of contributing
to regional development and fostering integration among populations fragmented by
conflict (Radosavac, Djukic, and Jovanovic 2014:23-26) (Pugh 2002:467). However, the
role of cooperatives in this context is not immediately evident. Rather, it operates
diffusely, often with the assistance of various international organizations through hybrid
mechanisms and platforms. Factors such as the erosion of trust resulting from war (CEDP
2018:42) and the complex political and economic legacy of the former Yugoslavia
(Gardner and Lerman 2006) partly explain the delayed recognition of the cooperative
sector’s contribution to regional integration.
Considering this context, this paper aims to delve into the role of cooperatives in
facilitating regional integration in the Western Balkans region. Building upon the outlined
integration strategies for the Western Balkans, which emphasize both bilateral EU
accession processes and intra-regional initiatives, this study seeks to elucidate the
historical context and contemporary dynamics of cooperatives in the region in the first
moment. By examining the historical evolution of cooperativism in the Western Balkans
and its contribution to the broader European integration process, this paper aims to shed
light on the multifaceted ways in which cooperatives foster socio-economic development
and cross-border collaboration. Moreover, it endeavors to explore the nuanced role of
cooperatives in navigating the challenges posed by the post-war context and the complex
political and economic legacy of the former Yugoslavia. Ultimately, this paper seeks to
emphasize the importance of considering cooperatives as a stakeholders in the Western
Balkans’ integration process and promoting policies aimed at enhancing their
engagement and empowerment within the region.
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The role of Cooperatives in Regional Integration: A Perspective from the Western Balkans
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The Cooperative Movement in the Western Balkans
In contrast to Europe, where the cooperative movement boasts a well-documented
history and is celebrated for its contributions to the social economy (Bietti et al., 2021;
Gijselinckx & Bussels, 2014; Ortmann & King, 2007), the history of cooperatives in the
Western Balkans, while similarly old - dating back to the 19th century - follows a unique
trajectory, yielding distinct outcomes that shed light on the asymmetries of
cooperativism’s role in their respective integration endeavors. The first cooperative in the
Western Balkans region, Gazdovsky Spolok, was founded in Bački Petrovac, Serbia, in
1846, modeling cooperative savings and loan frameworks. Predominantly, the
cooperatives sprouting during this era aimed to address capital scarcity issues, marking
a phase of relative prosperity for the cooperative movement (Krasavac & Petković, 2015).
According to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), cooperatives
established in the Western Balkans during this epoch mirrored the European model within
a context characterized by:
“a developed awareness about the need to associate; a significant number of
different kinds of cooperatives; and one or several alliances connected to
international cooperative associations” (FAO 2013:12).
Hence, the initial imprint of cooperativism in the region is largely positive, as it not only
establishes cooperative enterprises, inspired by the Rochdale model
1
, but also aligns with
the global cooperative movement, thereby bolstering and fortifying ongoing initiatives.
At this juncture, the trajectory of cooperativism in the Western Balkans mirrors that of
its European counterparts. However, following the Second World War, this trajectory
underwent a significant shift with the adoption of a collectivization system modeled after
the Soviet paradigm. This entailed a partial amalgamation of private property, akin to
developments in the Soviet Union, with the establishment of kolkhozes
2
. Those
cooperatives that did not undergo this transformation evolved into community hubs,
fostering rural development and serving as conduits for socialist principles within the
country (Irwin, 2000). Consequently, kolkhozes deviated from the cooperative model, as
laborers were unable to leave the premises, remuneration was tied to labor input rather
than production output, and decision-making processes mirrored governmental
1
The Rochdale Model refers to a cooperative business model that originated from the Rochdale Society of
Equitable Pioneers, a group of weavers in Rochdale, England, in 1844. This model laid down the principles of
modern cooperative organizations and became the foundation for the cooperative movement worldwide.
Key features of the Rochdale Model include voluntary and open membership, democratic control by members
(one member, one vote), distribution of surplus or profits among members based on their transactions with
the cooperative, education and training of members, cooperation among cooperatives, and concern for the
community.
The Rochdale Model emphasized the importance of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity,
and solidarity in creating sustainable and ethical businesses that serve the needs of their members and
communities. It provided a blueprint for the organization and operation of cooperatives across various sectors,
including agriculture, retail, finance, and housing.
2
Kolkhozes were collective farms in the Soviet Union where land, livestock, and equipment were pooled
together for joint production. These collective farms were a key component of the Soviet agricultural system,
established during Joseph Stalin’s collectivization campaign in the late 1920s and 1930s. The term “kolkhoz” is
derived from the Russian words “kollektivnoye khozyaystvo,” meaning collective ownership or management.
Kolkhozes were characterized by centralized planning and state control over agricultural production, with
farmers working collectively and sharing the profits from their labor. However, the system faced various
challenges, including inefficiency, low productivity, and resistance from individual farmers forced to give up
their land and join collective farms.
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VOL. 16, Nº. 2
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The role of Cooperatives in Regional Integration: A Perspective from the Western Balkans
Rui Samarcos Lora
259
mandates rather than cooperative principles, effectively reproducing state directives
within their assemblies.
By the late 1950s, amidst a Yugoslav adaptation of the Soviet model, cooperatives began
to showcase their role in rural development and were acknowledged as vital community
hubs, fostering social and cultural development and enhancing overall quality of life
within the region.
“With the adoption of the Law of 1957 when the emphasis was put on general
agricultural cooperatives, which aside from procuring inputs, purchasing
products needed for processing, providing services to farmers and other jobs
related to improving agriculture, also had a significant role in rural
development because these were places of gathering and the development
of social and cultural life, which helped to improve life” (FAO 2013:13).
In this context, it is noteworthy to recognize the role of cooperatives in fostering
community bonds - irrespective of the prevailing political and economic milieu - and even
in nurturing social capital (Barham and Chitemi, 2009). However, within the specific
context of the Western Balkans, the deepening of reforms in the region resulted in the
closure of numerous cooperatives, particularly smaller ones, with a significant portion
being nationalized and amalgamated into state-owned enterprises. This had detrimental
effects and, to some extent, dampened the cooperative sector’s vigor in the face of
evolving reforms, inconsistencies, and a drift away from the cooperative ethos (FAO,
2013:13).
The intensification of this model effectively transformed cooperative entities into
extensions of the government, utilized for political ends rather than representing the
interests of the cooperators themselves. Consequently, this period witnessed a significant
departure from the original objectives and modus operandi of cooperatives, elucidating
why their contribution to regional integration in the Western Balkans diverged from that
observed in European integration. The legacy of the socialist era profoundly discouraged
association and cooperative endeavors, a sentiment that persists among certain
segments of the population even today (Hagedorn, 2014; Wegren and O’Brien, 2018).
It was only in the late 1980s, amid the onset of new economic and social reforms in the
Western Balkans coinciding with the collapse of Yugoslavia, that cooperatives
commenced a revival rooted in their foundational principles. However, with the eruption
of the Bosnian war and subsequent conflicts, cooperativism was relegated to the
backseat, not deemed a priority at the time (FAO, 2013:15). With the advent of peace
negotiations in the late 1990s and the imperative for economic and social reconstruction
that interest in cooperatives was reignited definitively.
Thus, as can be perceived, when examining the nexus between the cooperative
movement and regional integration processes, it is imperative to acknowledge that the
trajectory of cooperative formation in the Western Balkans differed significantly from that
experienced in Europe. Consequently, the contribution of cooperatives to regional
integration is more readily discernible in the European context than in that of the Western
Balkans (Chaves and Monzón, 2017). Nonetheless, this does not negate the existence of
cooperative engagement within the Western Balkans.
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Cooperatives as a Catalyst for European Integration
The integration trajectory of the Western Balkans is marked by a distinctive feature,
rooted in the aspiration of each country in the region to join the European Union (Volk et
al., 2014:11). Moreover, the European Union, in addition to delineating its accession
criteria and requirements, actively encourages and conditions the Western Balkan nations
to foster regional integration, thereby facilitating a smoother and more harmonious
bilateral accession process, as previously noted
3
.
Given that the integration journey of the Western Balkans is intricately linked to EU
accession, understanding the role of cooperatives and their impact on the integration
process necessitates an examination of the existing synergies between cooperativism
and European integration. Subsequently, it becomes imperative to underscore their
involvement in the ongoing integration process within the Western Balkans.
Accession to the European Union entails a multifaceted process outlined in Article 49 of
the Treaty on European Union:
“Any European State which respects the values referred to in Article 2 and is
committed to promoting them may apply to become a member of the Union.
The European Parliament and national Parliaments shall be notified of this
application. The applicant State shall address its application to the Council,
which shall act unanimously after consulting the Commission and after
receiving the consent of the European Parliament, which shall act by a
majority of its component members. The conditions of eligibility agreed upon
by the European Council shall be taken into account. The conditions of
admission and the adjustments to the Treaties on which the Union is founded,
which such admission entails, shall be the subject of an agreement between
the Member States and the applicant State. This agreement shall be
submitted for ratification by all the contracting States in accordance with their
respective constitutional requirements”.
Based on the provisions of the Treaty, the first step for a country to become a member
of the European Union is to comply with the accession criteria defined in the European
Council of Copenhagen in 1993, known as the Copenhagen Criteria, which can be divided
into three broad axes:
i) stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights
and respect for and protection of minorities;
ii) a functioning market economy and the ability to cope with competitive
pressure and market forces within the EU;
iii) the ability to take on the obligations of membership, including the capacity to
effectively implement the rules, standards and policies that make up the body
of EU law (the ‘acquis’), and adherence to the aims of political, economic and
monetary union.
3
European Commission. European Neighborhood Policy and Enlargement Negotiations. Website:
https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/enlargement-policy/policy-highlights/regional-
cooperation_en. Access on 24
th
February, 2024.
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Upon initial examination of these foundational documents, namely Article 49 of the Treaty
on European Union and the Copenhagen Criteria, it becomes apparent that they share
certain parallels with the principles underpinning the cooperative movement. This
correlation facilitates the identification of synergies, thereby enabling discourse or
visualization of the guidelines established by the European Union at a supranational level,
regarding integration. Concurrently, cooperative principles
4
, operating at a more localized
level, can be delineated, as depicted in the table below
5
:
Table 1. Comparison between Cooperative Principles, Article 49 TEU, and the Copenhagen
Criteria
Cooperative principles
Article 49 of the Treaty of EU
Copenhagen Criteria
1. Voluntary and Open Membership
Democratic principle and voluntary
membership are aligned with the
EU’s aspiration to accept new
members who share democratic
values and seek voluntary
accession to the bloc.
“Stability of democratic institutions”
and “Respect for human rights and
protection of minorities.”
2. Democratic Member Control
It reflects the commitment to
democratic governance, one of the
pillars of the EU accession process.
“Stable institutions ensuring
democracy, the rule of law, human
rights, and respect for minorities” is
a criterion.
3. Member Economic Participation
The principle of sharing benefits
equitably is in line with the
objective of building fair and
market economies in the EU.
“Functional market economy.”
4. Autonomy and Independence
It reflects the desire for
autonomous entities, a principle
related to the need for EU member
states to maintain their
sovereignty.
The requirement for “ability to
assume the obligations of
accession, including adherence to
the goal of economic stability.”
5. Education, Training, and
Information
The pursuit of education and
information is aligned with the
values of transparency and
information in the EU.
Concerns regarding the “ability to
assume the obligations of
accession” and the need for
“effective institutions to implement
and enforce the acquis
communautaire.”
7. Cooperation among Cooperatives
It reflects the idea of working
together at national and
international levels, which can be
compared to cooperation among EU
member states.
Can be related to the commitment
to “good neighborly relations” and
“peaceful conflict resolution.”
8. Concern for Community
The commitment to sustainable
community development aligns
with the emphasis on social and
regional cohesion in the EU.
Can be linked to the need for “good
neighborly relations” and the
commitment to “stability of
borders.”
Source: Adapted from "Regionalism in Southern Europe: The cooperativism in the Western
Balkans’ integration process" [Master’s thesis, Universidade de Évora], by R. Lora, 2023.
(https://dspace.uevora.pt/rdpc/handle/10174/36014).
4
The cooperative principles serve as a guiding framework for the operation and organization of cooperatives
worldwide. These principles outline the fundamental values and practices that cooperatives adhere to in their
daily activities. They include voluntary and open membership, democratic member control, economic
participation by members, autonomy and independence, education, training, and information, cooperation
among cooperatives, and concern for community. Together, these principles ensure that cooperatives operate
in a manner that prioritizes the needs and interests of their members, promotes democratic decision-making,
fosters cooperation and mutual support, and contributes to the well-being of the communities they serve.
5
Lora, R. (2023). Regionalism in Southern Europe: The cooperativism in the Western Balkans’ integration
process [Master’s thesis, Universidade de Évora]. Retrieved from
https://dspace.uevora.pt/rdpc/handle/10174/36014. Access on 24
th
February, 2024.
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The role of Cooperatives in Regional Integration: A Perspective from the Western Balkans
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The initial synergy identified can be further underscored by viewing cooperatives as
agents of development from a grassroots perspective, i.e., on a local scale. Upon closer
examination, it becomes evident that cooperatives contribute to certain chapters of the
acquis communautaire of the European Union accession process or even in a regional
integration process. Therefore, it is imperative to pinpoint the areas in this relationship
where cooperatives make a contribution and highlight their role in the integration process
by scrutinizing the acquis communautaire outlined in the third point of the Copenhagen
Criteria.
In the European integration process, once a country is recognized as a candidate, it
undergoes several stages until it begins to adopt and implement the acquis
communautaire. At this juncture, chapters of the acquis are opened for negotiation,
assessment, and approval. Presently, this community acquis comprises 35 chapters that
serve as the foundation for commencing negotiations for each candidate country. Hence,
they pertain to various domains wherein the candidate country needs to adapt
administratively and ensure that national legislation aligns with EU legislation in these
domains.
Out of the 35 chapters constituting the acquis communautaire, cooperatives can be
directly associated, identified, and analyzed in five specific chapters, namely: Chapter
11, pertaining to agriculture and rural development; Chapter 19, concerning social policy
and employment; Chapter 20, related to business and industrial policy; Chapter 26,
addressing education and culture; and Chapter 27, focusing on the environment. By
examining the scope of these chapters and cooperative activities it can be argued that
cooperatives have the potential to be recognized as catalysts for regional integration not
only by contributing to the harmonization of the acquis communautaire but also by
serving as local enterprises capable of improving deficient or necessary aspects to meet
accession criteria, thereby actively and dynamically expediting the process.
In this regard, considering the chapters of the acquis communautaire from the
perspective of the contribution of cooperativism, it is possible to highlight that the
establishment of cooperatives has proven to be an effective instrument for alleviating
rural poverty (Mojo et al., 2017), as well as enhancing the efficiency and productivity of
processes in rural areas through the collective acquisition of inputs and machinery (Abate
et al., 2014; Ji et al., 2019). Furthermore, it empowers producers with bargaining power
and facilitates access to broader markets (Gava et al., 2021). It also fosters integration
between producers and supply chain actors and addresses gender issues. Similarly, it
promotes knowledge building and the creation of local social capital (Barham and
Chitemi, 2009), which is crucial in an integration process considering the history of
conflict in the Western Balkans.
Moreover, the establishment of cooperatives can support capacity building and the
dissemination of knowledge and co-creation through peer learning among producers,
which are vital for adopting best practices, adapting to climate change, and implementing
risk strategies. Finally, it is worth mentioning that cooperatives can play a central role in
local governance by identifying relevant technological innovations and necessary changes
in rural management, as well as in education to bolster producer leadership and foster
youth and female entrepreneurship (Gava et al., 2021).
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In this vein, cooperatives can be associated or observed alongside the concept of
subaltern and insurgent cosmopolitanism
6
(Lora 2023), as they enable subordinate or
excluded actors from the globalization process to organize transnationally in defense of
common interests. This is achieved through links with international organizations, such
as the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA), or through initiatives, projects, and
institutions that allow the grouping of often marginalized voices excluded from a process,
not only to participate but also to enjoy common benefits, as is the case with regional
integration.
Emphasizing the cooperative contribution to the process and highlighting this insurgent
cosmopolitanism capacity is crucial because the integration process of the Western
Balkans ultimately aims at accession to the European Union in the long term. Therefore,
the involvement of cooperatives in this scenario enables, in the short and medium term,
the highlighting of the role of a local actor as an international actor in contributing not
only to the regional scenario of the Western Balkans but also locally in each country.
Furthermore, it is important to note that, in the case of the Western Balkans countries,
additional accession conditions were established in the so-called Stabilization and
Association Process (SAP)
7
, mainly related to regional cooperation and good neighborly
relations. However, it is still necessary to analyze the catalytic effect that the cooperative
can provide, which will be discussed in detail in the next item regarding regionalism.
Cooperatives: a Non-Evident Local Actor in Regionalism
The role and impact of cooperatives within the European integration process are
discernible through the alignment between the foundational principles of European
integration — enshrined in the Treaty on European Union and the Copenhagen Criteria
— and the cooperative principles. Moreover, the correlation between specific aspects of
the acquis communautaire and cooperative principles in relevant sectors further
highlights their participation in shaping the accession process to the European Union.
Conversely, when considering the integration efforts in the Western Balkans, the
contribution of cooperatives appears less conspicuous, primarily due to the historical
backdrop of the cooperative movement in the region, as mentioned before. Moreover,
the ongoing nature of the integration process in the Western Balkans adds complexity to
the visibility of cooperative involvement. Additionally, akin to the dynamics observed in
European integration, the engagement of local actors, including cooperatives, may not
6
“Insurgent cosmopolitanism,” a term coined by Boaventura de Sousa Santos, refers to a critical and alternative
approach to traditional cosmopolitanism. While conventional cosmopolitanism tends to emphasize a universalist
and harmonious view of global citizenship, insurgent cosmopolitanism highlights the voices and perspectives
of marginalized and subaltern communities. This approach acknowledges the structural inequalities, injustices,
and oppressions that pervade global relations and seeks to challenge and transform these dynamics from the
margins of society. Insurgent cosmopolitanism values diversity, plurality, and the struggle for social justice at
local, national, and global levels, promoting a vision of global citizenship that is more inclusive, supportive, and
engaged with the realities and needs of marginalized communities. Santos, B. de S. (2007). Beyond Abyssal
Thinking: From Global Lines to Ecologies of Knowledges. Review (Fernand Braudel Center), 30(1), 45-89.
7
The Stabilization and Association Process (SAP) is a framework established by the European Union (EU) for
countries in the Western Balkans with the aim of promoting stability, democracy, and economic development
in the region. It provides a pathway for these countries to gradually integrate with the EU and eventually
become candidate countries for EU membership. The SAP involves various measures and reforms, including
political, economic, and legal reforms, as well as initiatives to promote regional cooperation and reconciliation.
It is an important mechanism for advancing the European integration aspirations of the Western Balkan
countries.
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be readily apparent. This observation stems from the predominant theoretical
frameworks, such as neofunctionalism and intergovernmentalism, which emphasize the
roles of states and supranational entities in integration endeavors, a phenomenon
accentuated in the context of the evolving integration process in the Western Balkans.
This does not mean that there are no local actors or that cooperatives are not indirectly
represented, contemplated, and participants in the process. The very mechanisms and
structure of global governance mention the possibility of participation and interaction
(Lora 2023). In this sense, it is interesting to note that the South East Europe 2030
Strategy
8
(SEE 2030 Strategy), organized by the member countries of the SEECP
9
, as
well as by the RCC
10
, highlights the traditional format of global governance processes as
insufficient for the full involvement of actors and beneficiaries of an integration process,
i.e., the top-down-oriented perspective demonstrates a lack of interaction with local
actors and does not foresee greater participation of other actors such as cooperatives.
“The top-down oriented process of programming and implementation of
actions did not provide for sufficient involvement of the implementers and
intended beneficiaries on the ground, such as the private sector and its
related institutions. Furthermore, limitations were detected in access to and
operationalisation of available funding; frequent succumbing to a silo
approach; weak capacities and/or lacking mandates of some regional
coordinators; and challenges in target formulations and data collection.”
(RCC-SEE 2030 2021:5)
Although the lack of a robust regulatory framework is a common challenge across the
Western Balkans, national approaches vary significantly, reflecting diverse political and
administrative structures. Serbia has made notable strides by enacting a modern Law on
Cooperatives, which aims to align with EU standards and principles of the social economy
(Ljubojevic & Maksimovic Sekulic, 2021). In contrast, Bosnia and Herzegovina faces the
additional complexity of harmonizing legislation across its state and entity levels,
resulting in a fragmented legal landscape for cooperatives that hinders the development
of a unified support system (European Parliament, 2024). North Macedonia, despite its
candidate status, still grapples with institutional and administrative capacity challenges
that impact the potential of cooperatives to act as instruments for regional
8
The South East Europe 2030 Strategy is a regional initiative aimed at promoting cooperation and development
among countries in the Southeast European region. It outlines a vision and objectives for the region’s
sustainable development, addressing various socio-economic challenges and opportunities. The strategy
focuses on areas such as economic growth, social inclusion, environmental sustainability, and regional
integration. It serves as a framework for joint action and collaboration among governments, international
organizations, civil society, and other stakeholders to foster progress and prosperity in the region by the year
2030.
9
SEECP stands for the South-East European Cooperation Process. It is a regional initiative aimed at promoting
cooperation and dialogue among countries in Southeast Europe. The SEECP was established in 1996 to address
common challenges and foster stability, security, and prosperity in the region. It provides a platform for political
dialogue, economic cooperation, and cultural exchange among its member states. The SEECP is based on
principles of equality, mutual respect, and good neighborly relations, and it works closely with international
partners to support regional integration and development efforts.
10
RCC stands for the Regional Cooperation Council. It is an international organization that promotes cooperation
and integration among countries in Southeast Europe. The RCC was established in 2008 to support the
European and Euro-Atlantic integration of the region and to foster stability, security, and economic
development. The organization focuses on areas such as regional cooperation, economic growth, infrastructure
development, and rule of law. The RCC facilitates dialogue and cooperation among its member states and
coordinates with other international organizations and donors to support the region’s integration efforts.
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development
11
. Furthermore, Kosovo’s cooperative sector development is closely tied to
the broader dialogue on normalizing relations with Serbia and fulfilling specific EU
conditions related to regional cooperation
12
.
Through data collection and analysis, it becomes apparent that the interaction between
cooperatives and the RCC occurs indirectly, facilitated at times through established
mechanisms or platforms, and at other times through intermediary actors like the
International Labour Organization (ILO), which coordinates numerous projects in the
region where cooperatives play a central role.
Moreover, the SEE 2030 Strategy underscores the imperative of bolstering regional
cooperation across existing sectors within the Western Balkans and between the region
and the European Union, aiming to establish a foundational framework through key
organizations across various political dimensions (RCC-SEE 2030 2021:6). Emphasizing
the need to harness the social capital of sectors and institutions, the Strategy aims to
enhance both intra- and inter-regional integration within the Western Balkans. This
strategic objective aligns with a specific requirement highlighted in the European
Commission’s Report on Social Economy in the Eastern Neighborhood and the Western
Balkans
13
, further emphasizing the significance of cooperatives in fostering regional
integration.
“The lack of a regulatory framework for social economy development is
cumbersome (…), not allowing socially driven initiatives full and needed
recognition (…) none of the countries have implementation tools. In practice
(…) social enterprises do not receive needed public recognition, do not enjoy
tax benefits, and are struggling with administrative burden and inconsistent
implementation of regulations. Social economy is seen as an inclusion model
mostly for people with disabilities, with few countries having defined other
vulnerable groups as beneficiaries of the employment model created by social
enterprises” (Rosandić 2018:5).
Thus, it is noticeable that, despite the existence and participation of social economy
entities, there is a lack of support from the Western Balkans countries in establishing a
legal framework to support and enable the functioning of cooperatives (Lora 2023). While
the Commission points out this gap, the SEE 2030 Strategy seems to encourage and
even highlight the need for greater involvement of this sector.
In this regard, the SEE 2030 Strategy seeks to incorporate this local capacity into
integration priorities as a significant contribution to creating synergies among regional,
sub-regional, economic, and local levels (RCC-SEE2030 2021:33), primarily through the
11
Balcanicaucaso.org. (2023). The state of progress of regional policy in the European integration process of
North Macedonia. Recuperado em 9 de setembro de 2025, de
https://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/North-Macedonia/The-state-of-progress-of-regional-policy-in-the-
European-integration-process-of-North-Macedonia-233282
12
Ifri.org. (2017). The Challenge of the European Integration of Kosovo: Regional Cooperation and Neighbourly
Relations. Recuperado em 9 de setembro de 2025, de http://www.ifri.org/en/challenge-european-integration-
kosovo-regional-cooperation-and-neighbourly-relations.
13
European Commission. Website:
https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/29642/attachments/15/translations/en/renditions/native. Access
on 25
th
February, 2024.
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Employment and Social Affairs Platform 2 (ESAP2)
14
. This can be linked to the earlier
discussion on synergies between cooperativism and the fundamentals of European
integration. Therefore, the Strategy acknowledges the importance of local actors,
anticipates their participation, and even mentions the construction of this relationship at
different levels (RCC-SEE 2030 2021:54).
Based on the European Commission’s Report on Social Economy in the Eastern
Neighborhood and Western Balkans (Rosandić 2018), as well as the SEE 2030 Strategy
(2021), the participation and role of cooperatives in the integration process are not
explicitly highlighted. However, when observing the activities of international
organizations cooperating in the process as supranational agents, the contribution of
cooperatives to various projects, initiatives, and activities indirectly supporting the
integration of the Western Balkans region becomes apparent. Thus, cooperatives have
served as catalysts for many actions, albeit in a hybrid process with international
organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Labour
Organization (ILO), International Fund for Agricultural Development, International
Cooperative Alliance (ICA), among others.
Furthermore, it is important to note that countries in the Western Balkans have support
infrastructure in the form of intermediary organizations, incubators, accelerators, training
centers, mentorship programs, along with financing and networks advocating for the
interests of social economy stakeholders (Rosandić 2018). In this context, cooperatives
are included in various segments and solutions, as their seven principles enable them to
be perceived as local enterprises capable of leveraging characteristics related to the social
economy. This underscores the aspect of insurgent cosmopolitanism once again.
Thus, considering hybrid initiatives that take into account cooperative capacity and the
activities of observed international organizations, it is possible to highlight specific areas
- potentially related to the acquis communautaire - where cooperativism has contributed
to the integration of the Western Balkans in a non-evident manner but as a catalyst. One
such area extends beyond regional integration, encompassing rural development,
agriculture, employment, and social inclusion, and may even be linked to peacebuilding
efforts (Lora 2023). By fostering economic and social development in the region,
cooperatives have facilitated the integration of individuals at a local level, enabling groups
previously divided by conflict to coexist through the structure provided by cooperatives,
as the case of a multi-ethnic agri-food cooperative established in the canton of Zenica-
Doboj
15
.
The aforementioned project can be related to various chapters of the acquis
communautaire, in addition to those dedicated to agricultural development, employment,
and social aspects. It is also possible to observe in this case the hybrid manner in which
cooperatives have operated and been represented in the global governance bodies of the
region, always through an international organization. In the same vein, recent projects
by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) have been notable in
14
Employment and Social Affairs Platform 2 is a forum associated with the Regional Cooperation Council (RCC).
It serves as a space for discussions, collaborations, and initiatives focused on employment and social affairs
within the framework of regional cooperation in Southeast Europe
15
Committee for the Promotion and Advancement of Cooperatives (COPAC COOP). Transforming our world: A
cooperative 2030 Cooperative contributions to SDG 16. Website: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/-
--ed_emp/---emp_ent/---coop/documents/publication/wcms_711383.pdf. Access on February 25
th
, 2024.
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fostering cooperative initiatives in the Western Balkans region through the Rural
Competitiveness Development Program (RCDP)
16
. These initiatives aim to establish small
agricultural groupings alongside small and medium-sized enterprises and other actors in
the agricultural sector, with the goal of implementing rural development, local prosperity,
poverty alleviation, and promoting social inclusion.
It is noteworthy that the mentioned project has been operating in a hybrid manner,
whereby once the proposal was presented to farmers, they themselves established and
registered the groupings. Therefore, the initiative originated from the grassroots, in a
bottom-up perspective, in a joint process between cooperatives and international agents,
such as IFAD in this case. Although not all groupings in the project identify as
cooperatives, farmers may potentially organize themselves in this format in the future
and provide collaborative work as has been happening in the region. According to IFAD,
these groupings have already facilitated the establishment of five cooperatives and the
consolidation of twelve others. In total, a network of 700 farmers has been established
so far.
Similarly, in the areas of employment, social and economic development, and inclusion,
another case worth mentioning is related to the Romani population in Serbia.
Cooperatives have been important actors for this population, particularly in Serbia, as
Romani people have traditionally been the main workforce - albeit informal - in the waste
management sector of the country (Medina 2008). The establishment of cooperatives
has strengthened the participation of this population as well as inclusion, bringing
together competitive amounts of raw materials and increasing their bargaining power. In
the energy sector, the study “Energy Cooperatives Comparative Analysis in Eastern
Partnership Countries and Western Balkans,” conducted by Women Engage for a
Common Future (WECF) in partnership with the Green Energy Cooperative (Zelena
Energetska Zadruga-ZEZ), highlights the contribution of cooperatives to the energy
theme in the Western Balkans region. According to the study, energy communities,
including cooperatives, play a vital role in helping governments achieve climate and
energy goals. They foster commitment, reduce costs and distrust, and encourage
sustainable actions. These projects promote community cohesion and are part of a
broader strategy for inclusive development
17
.
In North Macedonia, also in the context of rural development, agriculture, employment,
and social inclusion, the project “Support to Development of Agricultural Cooperatives,”
coordinated by CARE International, along with the United Nations Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the European Union, presented in its
final report that cooperative projects established in the region have led to an
improvement in agricultural practices and modernization of rural properties
18
.”
It is possible to list other similar examples that allow us to observe the role of
cooperatives as a catalyzing agent in regional integration processes. Therefore, the
16
Fundo Internacional para o Desenvolvimento da Agricultura (IFAD). Website:
https://www.ifad.org/en/web/operations/-/project/2000001813. Access on February 25
th
, 2024.
17
Women Engage for a Common Future (WECF). Website: https://www.wecf.org/wp-
content/uploads/2018/06/EnergyCooperativesONLINEshortversionKopieren.pdf. Access on February 25
th
,
2024.
18
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Website:
https://reliefweb.int/report/republic-north-macedonia/final-evaluation-support-development-agricultural-
cooperatives. Access on February 25
th
, 2024.
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268
cooperative acts as a non-evident actor. Whether due to the hybrid format in which
cooperative initiatives are carried out or even because of the history of cooperativism in
the region, the process of integration in the Western Balkans has relied on cooperative
actions, although this contribution could be better utilized if indeed viewed from a “top-
down” perspective, as suggested by the SEE 2030 Strategy, harnessing the inherent
insurgent cosmopolitan potential of the cooperative essence.
Conclusion
The examination of the cooperative movement within the Western Balkans offers valuable
insights into the complexities of regional integration. By tracing its historical trajectory,
shaped by a confluence of communist legacies and regional conflicts, we gain a nuanced
understanding of its divergent path compared to cooperative movements in Europe. This
nuanced perspective underscores the importance of appreciating the multifaceted roles
of cooperatives as agents of change within the region’s integration dynamics.
Furthermore, our analysis illuminates the significant but often understated contributions
of cooperatives to European integration. As the Western Balkans navigate the path
toward EU accession, understanding the pivotal role of cooperatives becomes imperative.
Not only do cooperatives possess the potential to facilitate the accession process, but
they also serve as vital drivers of regional cohesion and cooperation among Western
Balkan nations.
Despite facing challenges stemming from historical legacies and legal frameworks,
cooperatives demonstrate resilience and remain integral actors in the regional landscape.
While their impact may not always be immediately discernible, their influence permeates
various spheres of regionalism, offering avenues for enhanced collaboration and
integration. By acknowledging and harnessing the latent potential of cooperatives,
stakeholders can unlock new opportunities for synergy between local and global forces,
fostering a more robust and inclusive integration process in the Western Balkans.
In conclusion, prioritizing the role of cooperatives as catalysts for integration represents
a crucial step toward realizing the region’s aspirations for both regional cohesion and
eventual EU accession. By leveraging the inherent strengths of the cooperative
movement, policymakers can pave the way for sustainable and inclusive integration,
positioning the Western Balkans as a dynamic participant in the broader European
landscape. While the cooperative movement faces shared challenges across the region,
future research and policy initiatives must account for the distinct national contexts. The
differing legal frameworks in Serbia, the complex governance structure in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and the specific post-independence challenges in Kosovo all necessitate
tailored approaches to effectively harness the power of cooperatives for integration.
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