OBSERVARE
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1
Thematic Dossier – Internationalization of Higher Education:
Experiences and Challenges
June 2025
52
DIGITAL TOOLS IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION: A
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH
SEÇKIN ESEN
seckinesen@hacettepe.edu.tr
Seçkin Esen received his Ph.D. in Educational Sciences from Hacettepe University in 2023
(Turkey). His research interests focus on educational management, second language acquisition,
school health, and educational technologies. He has contributed to various academic projects and
publications in educational sciences. Currently, he is involved in developing innovative content
and mobile applications to enhance language learning for diverse learner profiles.
Abstract
The use of digital tools has recently gained prominence in the field of second language
teaching due to the promising potential of technology use in education, which innovates
teaching methods and enhances the effectiveness of learning. This systematic review focuses
on recent research on the impacts of digital tool usage in second language teaching in higher
education. The review covers findings from recently published studies and highlights
challenges and best practices related to the implementation of digital technologies. The
findings of the studies show that technologies such as blended learning, online learning
platforms, mobile learning applications, digital games, and virtual and augmented reality offer
opportunities for language acquisition. Moreover, artificial intelligence presents opportunities
and challenges for not only language teachers but also learners. The conclusion section of the
study covers the gap in existing research and recommendations for future research on the
use of digital tools, which will make second language education in higher education more
effective.
Keywords
Digital Tools, Second Language Learning, Higher Education, Technology-Enhanced Language
Learning, Systematic Review.
Resumo
Nos últimos anos, a utilização de ferramentas digitais tem vindo a assumir um papel de
destaque no domínio do ensino de línguas estrangeiras, impulsionada pelo potencial
transformador da tecnologia na educação. Este fenómeno tem promovido a inovação nos
métodos pedagógicos e contribuído para o aumento da eficácia dos processos de
aprendizagem. A presente revisão sistemática incide sobre investigações recentes que
analisam os impactos da integração de ferramentas digitais no ensino de línguas estrangeiras
no ensino superior. A análise contempla os resultados de estudos publicados nos últimos anos
e sublinha os principais desafios, bem como as boas práticas identificadas no que respeita à
implementação de tecnologias digitais no contexto educativo. Os dados analisados evidenciam
que tecnologias como o ensino híbrido (blended learning), plataformas de aprendizagem
online, aplicações móveis de apoio à aprendizagem, jogos digitais, e ambientes de realidade
virtual e aumentada proporcionam oportunidades significativas para a aquisição de
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges
June 2025, pp. 52-63
Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of
Recent Research
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53
competências linguísticas. Paralelamente, a inteligência artificial revela-se uma ferramenta
promissora, embora também apresente desafios, não apenas para os docentes, mas
igualmente para os próprios estudantes. A secção final deste estudo identifica lacunas
relevantes na literatura existente e propõe direções para futuras investigações. As
recomendações formuladas visam contribuir para uma utilização mais eficaz e sustentada das
ferramentas digitais no ensino de línguas estrangeiras no ensino superior, promovendo,
assim, ambientes de aprendizagem mais inovadores e inclusivos.
Palavras-chave
Ferramentas Digitais, Aprendizagem de Segunda Língua, Ensino Superior, Aprendizagem de
Línguas Assistida por Tecnologia, Revisão Sistemática.
How to cite this article
Esen, Seçkin (2025). Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic
Review of Recent Research. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. Thematic Dossier -
Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges. VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1. June
2025, pp. 52-63. DOI https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0325.4.
Article submitted on 11th April 2025 and accepted for publication on 8 may 2025.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges
June 2025, pp. 52-63
Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of
Recent Research
Seçkin Esen
54
DIGITAL TOOLS IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN HIGHER
EDUCATION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH
SEÇKIN ESEN
1. Introduction
The role of communication in education is undeniable, especially in the field of second
language acquisition, as it promotes global interaction, cultural immersion, and a variety
of career opportunities. Today’s communication is mostly based on digital technologies
that not only alter the education environments but also transform pedagogical practices
and learning outcomes. Digital tools used in second language learning in higher education
consist of various innovative tools and methods. These new learning environments
include blended learning that combines online and face-to-face instruction and artificial
intelligence platforms that provide personalized learning experiences. The widespread
use of rapidly evolving technologies in education makes it necessary to review the recent
research, which may help researchers investigate and understand the existing systems,
identify trends, and find gaps in the field. This review aims to examine the studies on the
use of digital tools in second language education in higher education and to provide a
comprehensive perspective for researchers, educators, and policymakers.
2. Literature Review: Existing Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
Technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) has been a popular subject among
scholars; therefore, numerous studies have been conducted on the integration of digital
tools in language education. Several systematic reviews, such as blended learning in
higher education for second language acquisition, have examined specific approaches.
“A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language
Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024” analyzed studies
published between 2014 and 2023. The study indicates that various studies were
conducted on undergraduate English learners, and there were significant enhancements
in language acquisition and student engagement due to the integration of social,
cognitive, and teaching presence. Other reviews, covering studies from 2013 to 2024,
have focused on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching that is based on online
collaboration, emphasizing the potential of online environments to improve writing skills
through interactive learning and feedback. (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). The use of newly
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VOL. 16, Nº. 1, TD1
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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges
June 2025, pp. 52-63
Digital Tools in Second Language Learning in Higher Education: a Systematic Review of
Recent Research
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developed technologies in English teaching at universities has also been systematically
reviewed, and it was revealed that the number of empirical studies on the latest tools
like chatbots and virtual reality is inadequate (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023). Research trends in
TELL in the period between 2020 and 2022 were analyzed, pointing to the prevalence of
quantitative studies in higher education (Albashiry & Khan, 2023). Furthermore,
technology-enhanced self-regulated language learning has been systematically reviewed
in the studies published between 2011 and 2020 (Yang et al., 2023).
Meta-analyses have been applied in order to determine the effectiveness of digital tools.
In one meta-analysis, 34 studies on technology-enhanced vocabulary learning were
investigated. It was found that technology had a moderately positive effect on vocabulary
learning, and incidental instruction is more effective than intentional instruction (Lin &
Yu, 2022). The effects of interactive technologies on language learning were investigated
in another meta-analysis, finding that they have a significant positive effect on language
skills, learning attitudes, and self-efficacy (Li & Peng, 2024). Digital game-based
language learning (DGBLL) has been examined through meta-analysis, indicating a small
to medium positive effect of digital games on second language development (Dixon et
al., 2022). In addition, the effect of TELL on ESL/EFL writing skills has also been examined
in some studies. Accordingly, it was found that technology has a clearly significant
positive effect on writing skills (Xie and Wang, 2023). A meta-analysis on augmented
reality (AR) in language learning examined studies from 2010 to 2023 and found that AR
has a significant positive effect on both language and emotional outcomes (Wu et al.,
2024). A meta-analysis was also conducted on blended language education, and as a
result of the study, it was concluded that this method can be as successful as traditional
face-to-face education (Baralt et al., 2021). Several of these studies (A Systematic
Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through
the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024; Bakhsh & Abid, 2023; Chen et al., 2025;
González-Calatayud et al., 2023; Huang & Li, 2024; Wu et al., 2024) clearly demonstrate
the methodological rigor employed in the field through the PRISMA guidelines for
conducting systematic reviews.
According to the findings of literature reviews and meta-analyses, there is a well-
established research area within TELL. However, due to the continuous development of
new digital tools and the dynamic nature of educational practices, systematic reviews are
needed to capture current trends and findings. There is a significant amount of research
examining English as a foreign language, particularly at the undergraduate level (A
Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language
Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024; Al-Rahmi et al., 2024).
However, due to the paucity of such research on other languages, more research is
needed in additional target languages and at various levels of higher education, including
postgraduate studies.
3. Digital Tools and Second Language Skills: Impact and Effectiveness
This section of the study examines the impact and effectiveness of specific categories of
digital tools in supporting second foreign language learning in higher education.
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Internationalization of Higher Education: Experiences and Challenges
June 2025, pp. 52-63
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Recent Research
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3.1. Blended Learning
Blended learning is defined as a hybrid model in which learners participate in both
physical classroom environments and online platforms. Blended learning is a multifaceted
concept that includes various definitions, models, and frameworks, incorporating all
educational formats that combine online and face-to-face learning activities (Hrastinski,
2019). Another definition is that it is a "pedagogically balanced, adaptive combination"
of various learning methods, consisting of both formal and informal dimensions as well
as the integration of real and virtual educational experiences (Mintii, 2023).
Emphasizing the interaction of social, cognitive, and instructional presence, the
Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework has significantly improved language acquisition
skills such as speaking, listening, writing, and general proficiency, as well as
psychological outcomes such as student engagement, perception, confidence, and self-
efficacy (A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education: Second Language
Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024). There have been many
significant cognitive improvements in behavioral outcomes, including academic
performance, in blended learning environments (A Systematic Review of Blended
Learning in Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through the Community of
Inquiry Framework, 2024). However, blended learning has its drawbacks, one of which
is related to increasing reliance on technology. This situation may create barriers for
students and educators. Technical difficulties such as poor internet connectivity, issues
with Learning Management Systems (LMS), and limited access to digital resources can
hinder the learning process. Students in areas with unreliable or inadequate internet
connectivity may face difficulties during blended learning, which can lead to frustration
(Suriaman et al., 2023). Furthermore, Romli et al. emphasize the essential necessity of
adequate technology infrastructure. If technology infrastructure is inadequate, technical
difficulties can prevent students from learning (Romli et al., 2023).
The idea of integrating online and face-to-face teaching is a valuable approach for second
language acquisition in higher education since it can help the educators and learners to
achieve positive outcomes by promoting social and cognitive presence. However,
technical issues need to be prevented in order to make this approach effective for both
students and educators.
3.2. Online Collaborative Learning
Online collaborative learning (OCL) is defined as a method of structured learning in which
people participate in group projects using web resources. It usually results in the creation
of shared products for evaluation. This approach is described as activities needing
combined intellectual efforts between students or between students and teachers
(Kawtar et al. 2024). This cooperative approach allows students, who might be
geographically apart, to work either asynchronously or synchronously. Therefore, it
strengthens the learners’ sense of community and shared goal.
Online collaborative settings have been applied in teaching ESL and EFL in higher
education. They focus on the digital platforms and the specific language skills targeted
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(Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). Systematic reviews clearly show that collaborative online
settings improve learners' language proficiency through interactive learning, feedback
techniques, and personalized learning opportunities (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). These
environments not only help students improve their writing skills but also their oral and
speaking skills because the nature of online collaboration allows for this (Al-Rahmi et al.,
2024). However, collaborative online settings have disadvantages that need to be
addressed. These drawbacks include distraction of the learners, issues with internet
connection, lack of sources, and technical skills of learners (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024).
This learning approach encourages interaction among students. It offers significant
opportunities, especially in the development of writing and speaking skills. In order for
this approach to be effective, it is of great importance to prevent technical problems. In
addition, sufficient support should be provided to both educators and students to ensure
active participation of students and to increase educational efficiency.
3.3. Mobile Learning (MALL)
Mobile Learning (MALL) allows users to access learning materials and activities
independently of time and space by incorporating mobile devices into education (Indriani,
2020). This approach also encourages participatory and independent learning.
Recently, mobile learning has been widely used in second language education in higher
education. The use of mobile applications has become one of the best practices in blended
learning environments for language acquisition because it offers flexible and accessible
tools for language acquisition (Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher
Education: Second Language Acquisition with a Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024).
Research findings indicate that mobile applications of foreign language education
generally focus on the development of vocabulary skills (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023). Besides,
meta-analytic data show that mobile-assisted vocabulary learning is more successful
than traditional computer-assisted learning approaches due to the instant learning and
adaptability provided by mobile devices (Li and Peng, 2024).
3.4. Digital Game-Based Language Learning (DGBLL)
Digital game-based learning (DGBL) can be defined as supporting and facilitating learning
processes using video and digital games. Prensky coined the term, and according to
Prensky, DGBL encompasses learning activities that include digital games, ranging from
educational simulations to role-playing games (RPGs) (Byun & Joung 2018).
DGBL's potential in second language education has been a popular subject among
researchers and educators. Meta-analyses have provided valuable insights into the
effects of digital games on language education (Dixon et al., 2022), while systematic
reviews have investigated how digital games could be utilized in teaching vocabulary
skills (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023). These meta-analyses suggest a small to medium positive
effect of DGBL on language learning outcomes (Dixon et al., 2022). Recent research has
proposed that games designed for only entertainment purposes can particularly be more
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effective for second language acquisition when compared with the games designed for
only educational purposes (Dixon et al., 2022). In addition to the result of the studies. It
is indicated that playing digital games might help learners' vocabulary acquisition and
change the perspective of language acquisition in a favorable way (Franco, 2024).
Digital game-based language learning proposes a promotive way for second language
acquisition based on the indications of studies that demonstrate beneficial effects on a
variety of language skills, such as vocabulary skills. The realization of how games with
an entertainment focus can be adapted to the process of second language learning
highlights the importance of motivation and engagement in the language learning
process. What is also inferable from the discoveries is the superiority of these elements
compared to unique instructional designs.
3.5. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR)
Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) have recently started to be used in second
language education. These technologies support second language education with
immersive and personalized learning experiences. While virtual reality offers simulated
contexts that learners participate in authentic language use, augmented reality enhances
the educational experience by providing visual components in the real world, encouraging
vocabulary learning in context (Wu et al., 2024).
VR and AR-based digital tools maximize student participation in education and provide
immersive learning experiences. At the same time, these technologies facilitate the
understanding of complex topics through visualization and interaction. Vesisenaho et al.
state that through these technologies, students can experience the real world in
simulated environments and increase their competence (Vesisenaho et al., 2019). In
addition, VR has the feature of minimizing risks. Thanks to VR technologies integrated
into various medical education programs, students can practice procedures in a safe
environment without the risks associated with real-life applications (Lie et al., 2022).
This also applies to language learning. If these digital tools are used in higher education,
students learning a second language can develop their language skills by experiencing
real life.
4. Impact on Affective and Cognitive Factors
Digital tools used in second language teaching have a significant impact on students’
emotional and cognitive states. Educational experience, student motivation, and
engagement are affected by these technological tools. They allow for varied learning
modalities that can increase students' willingness to actively participate in their education
and create a more dynamic learning environment (Pikhart et al., 2023).
The use of various digital resources can improve communication skills as it enables
students to participate in language learning (Lee & Dressman, 2017). The inclusion of
multimedia elements in education has a positive effect on students, making the learning
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environment more interactive and making students more willing to communicate, which
is a very important factor in language acquisition.
Technology-enhanced language learning environments (TELLEs) promote learners'
willingness to communicate (WTC), which is a crucial element in second language
acquisition. TELLEs increase the amount of engagement with content, peers, and
educators as well as expand affective components including self-confidence and
enjoyment. These environments help learners to develop linguistic skills and to reduce
cognitive load; therefore, they increase the prospect of verbal communication (Huang &
Li, 2024).
Gamified and interactive digital technology can contribute to learning by encouraging
students to communicate. As a result, technology has a positive impact on
communication, with the effect of improving interaction, emotional well-being, and
language development. However, more research is needed to understand how digital
technologies can benefit students at different stages of the learning process.
5. The Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Second Language Education
The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed second and foreign language
learning, as in many other fields. Researchers have begun to investigate the effects of
AI on higher education curricula and have found that AI presents both opportunities and
challenges (Chen et al., 2025). The effects of AI-based chatbots on language learning
have recently become one of the popular topics of research (Bakhsh & Abid, 2023;
Bimpong, 2025). We can classify these chatbots as virtual tutoring assistants because
they provide personalized learning experiences as well as real-time feedback (Bimpong,
2025; Bali & Sharma, 2024). Generative AI and large language models (LLMs) such as
ChatGPT have recently gained great importance in language education and offer smart
tutoring opportunities (Voss, 2024; McKenzie, 2024; Bommarito, 2023). If we need to
list the benefits of artificial intelligence in terms of language learning, we can say
personalized learning, instant feedback, and the creation of adaptable learning
environments (Chen et al., 2025; Language Learning Trends for 2025: What's New and
What's Next, 2024; Reeve-Parker, 2024).
Research shows that students increasingly perceive the use of artificial intelligence tools
as beneficial for their learning and future careers (Almusharraf et al., 2024; Reeve-
Parker, 2024).
On the other hand, the use of AI in education raises concerns about the effective and
ethical use of these tools, such as academic honesty and the potential for bias in AI-
generated content (Chen et al., 2025; Voss, 2024; Compilatio, 2025).
Today, the need to use AI-supported digital tools, including chatbots and large language
models, in second language teaching is an undeniable reality. However, their effective
and responsible integration into the field of education, ethical implications, and
pedagogical strategies must be carefully considered.
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June 2025, pp. 52-63
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6. Challenges and Best Practices in Implementing Digital Tools
Using digital tools in second language education in higher education can pose challenges
such as the need for reliable internet access and technical support, which can prevent
learners from using digital resources effectively (A Systematic Review of Blended
Learning in Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through the Community of
Inquiry Framework, 2024; Al-Rahmi et al., 2024). Additionally, ensuring adequate
student engagement in online learning environments can be difficult, which is especially
true in blended or fully online courses. It should also be noted that there are differences
in language proficiency levels among students. This situation requires the use of tools
and strategies to meet different needs (A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in
Higher Education: Second Language Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry
Framework, 2024). Another challenge to introducing equitable practices in language
teaching is the inequality of access to technology and digital literacy (The Role of Digital
Technologies in Personalizing ESL Instruction: Challenges and Innovations, n.d.). These
challenges that need to be overcome necessitate the identification of best practices.
Based on the findings from the research, some of these practices can be providing
comprehensive training and ongoing support to teachers as well as enabling them to
effectively integrate technology into their teaching practices (Purwanto et al., 2023; Chai
& Jung, 2024). The way to ensure that technology enhances students rather than hinders
them is to align digital tools with pedagogical and learning goals (Al-Rahmi et al., 2024).
Encouraging online communities and increasing opportunities for interaction and
collaboration are essential to maximizing student engagement and creating a supportive
learning environment (A Systematic Review of Blended Learning in Higher Education:
Second Language Acquisition through the Community of Inquiry Framework, 2024; Al-
Rahmi et al., 2024). Another factor to consider when determining digital tools is the need
to consider the needs of all learners to ensure equal access to opportunities (The Role of
Digital Technologies in Personalizing ESL Instruction: Challenges and Innovations, n.d.;
Dahlstrom & Bichsel, 2025).
Developing a proactive approach to successfully integrating digital tools into second
language education can help students overcome challenges related to participation,
technology, and equity. Some of the practices that can be applied include training
teachers, aligning technology with pedagogy, and developing online communities. This
can help maximize the benefits of digital tools used in education.
7. Conclusion and Future Directions
This systematic review attempts to synthesize research on the use of digital tools in
second language education in higher education and to identify the effects of various
technologies on language learning. The analysis reveals that digital tools have a positive
effect on language learning outcomes, student motivation, and student engagement.
With the emergence of artificial intelligence and its use in education, chatbots in particular
have begun to play a major role in language teaching. Thanks to these tools, the potential
for personalization and development of language learning experiences has increased.
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Important insights have been gained from existing research; however, it is also known
that this area needs to be further investigated. Most of the research conducted focuses
on English as the target language, which indicates that more studies should be conducted
on the effectiveness of digital tools in learning other languages. In addition, the long-
term effects of these tools on language learning should be investigated. Another
important issue is the need to examine the extent to which digital technologies affect
students at different language levels. Further research is needed to ensure the
pedagogical effects of the use of AI and LLM in language acquisition as well as their
ethical and effective integration. Future research should also aim to refine the role of
digital tools in developing reading, speaking, listening, and writing skills. Addressing
these gaps can continue to advance the topic of supporting second language education
with digital tools in higher education.
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