OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025

448

THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE ECONOMY OF CO-OPERATION IN THE TRIPLE

AMAZON FRONTIER. THE CASE OF THE TIKUNA PEOPLE IN BRAZIL,

COLOMBIA AND PERU

JACKSON BENTES

Jackson.bentes@lasalle.org.br

Post-Doctoral Researcher in International Relations at OBSERVARE – Universidade Autónoma de

Lisboa. Post-Doctorate in History from the Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro. PhD in

Education, Art and History of Culture from Mackenzie Presbyterian University. Master's in

Psychology from the Universidade Católica de Brasília. Graduated in Philosophy (BA and BSc)

from Universidade La Salle de Canoas, RS. General Director of Faculdade La Salle/Manaus

(Brazil). Director of the Centro Educacional La Salle. Lecturer in "Ethics", "Education" and

"Philosophy" at UNILASALLE/Lucas. Member of the Research Group at Universidade La Salle-

Canoas/RS. Has experience in Philosophy, working mainly on the following subjects: Philosophy,

Ethics and Philosophy of Education, History of Education. BASis evaluator.

http://lattes.cnpq.br/8595759894540190

BRÍGIDA BRITO

bbrito@autonoma.pt

Associate Professor, Coordinator of the Masters in International Relations, Deputy Director of the

Department of International Relations at Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa and of OBSERVARE-

UAL (Portugal). She is a researcher at IPRI-Nova. PhD and Master's in African Studies, Sociologist

with a Post-Doctorate on socio-environmental issues at the Centro de Estudos Africanos at

ISCTE-IUL. She is a consultant in the preparation of preliminary diagnoses and evaluations of

development cooperation projects, collaborating with public entities, Portuguese and African civil

society organisations and international organisations, including the World Bank. Her research

interests focus on socio-environmental relations, the social and human impacts of climate change

and sustainability. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1683-5593

Abstract

The article summarises an ongoing study of indigenous tribes in Amazonia and how they

overcome challenges that include environmental preservation and community sustainability.

The problem formulated aims to understand the socio-environmental and cultural impacts

emerging from the Tikunas' so-called “economy of cooperation” and global economic flows on

the Brazil-Colombia-Peru border. It looks at how this relationship generates conflicts and

adaptations, but also reconfigures territories in the midst of forest preservation. The aim is to

analyse the interception between the ‘economy of cooperation’ and economic exploitation that

takes place on the triple frontier of the Amazonia (Brazil-Colombia-Peru). This reconfigures

socio-environmental and cultural dynamics, determining the mechanisms of adaptation,

resistance and conflict in the face of international pressures that affect territorial governance.

The research, which is exploratory in nature, follows a multidisciplinary approach that

combines perspectives from international relations, ecology and economics, valuing an

indigenous epistemology. A bibliographical research and field study were carried out using the

qualitative method. In order to analyse the interaction between environmental preservation,

Tikuna lifestyles and local economic needs, techniques such as surveys and field studies were

carried out. The initial results favour an understanding of the conflicts between economic

expansion and management of the Amazon rainforest within the complexities inherent in the

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025, pp. 448-467

The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

449

sustainable management of preservation lands, respecting indigenous cultures and regional

economic challenges.

Keywords

Tikuna peoples, Amazonia, economy of cooperation, environmental preservation, Triple

Frontier.

Resumo

O artigo resume um estudo em curso sobre tribos indígenas da Amazônia e a forma como

estas superam os desafios, desde a preservação ambiental até a sustentabilidade das

comunidades. O problema formulado tem o intuito de compreender os impactos

socioambientais e culturais emergentes da denominada "economia de cooperação" dos

Tikunas e os fluxos econômicos globais na fronteira Brasil-Colômbia-Peru. É abordado como

essa relação gera conflitos e adaptações, mas também reconfigura territórios em meio à

preservação da floresta. O objetivo é analisar a intercepção entre a “economia de cooperação"

e a exploração econômica que ocorre na tríplice fronteira da Amazônia (Brasil-Colômbia-Peru),

reconfigurando dinâmicas socioambientais e culturais, determinando os mecanismos de

adaptação, resistência e conflitos diante das pressões internacionais que afetam a governança

territorial. A pesquisa, de caráter exploratório, segue uma abordagem multidisciplinar que

associa perspectivas das relações internacionais, ecologia e economia, valorizando uma

epistemologia indígena. Foi seguida uma investigação bibliográfica e estudo de campo através

do método qualitativo de análise. Para prossecução dos fins de análise da interação entre a

preservação ambiental, os hábitos de vida Tikunas e as necessidades econômicas locais, foram

utilizadas técnicas como o inquérito e o estudo de campo. Os primeiros resultados favorecem

a compreensão dos conflitos entre expansão económica e manejo da floresta amazónica no

meio de complexidades inerentes à gestão sustentável de terras de preservação, respeitando

culturas indígenas e desafios económicos regionais.

Palavras-chave

Povos Tikuna, Amazônia, economia de cooperação, preservação ambiental, Tríplice fronteira.

How to cite this article

Bentes, Jackson & Brito, Brígida (2025). The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the

Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru. Janus.net, e-

journal of international relations. VOL. 16, Nº. 1. May-October 2025, pp. 448-467. DOI

https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.16.1.21.

Article received on 2nd February 2025 and accepted for publication on 17th March 2025.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025, pp. 448-467

The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

450

THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE ECONOMY OF CO-OPERATION IN

THE TRIPLE AMAZON FRONTIER. THE CASE OF THE TIKUNA

PEOPLE IN BRAZIL, COLOMBIA AND PERU

JACKSON BENTES

BRÍGIDA BRITO

[Cooperation] I helped my brother climb a mountain, and in

the end i realised i'd reached the top too

Author unknown

Introduction

The preservation of the Amazon is a global challenge that requires articulation and co-

operation between local communities and the international community.

Costa (1992 apud Oliveira and Mondardo, 2014) points to a common issue experienced

on the triple border, also known as the amazonian trapezium, which connects Brazil,

Colombia and Peru. Regardless of their nationality, local communities tend to keep alive

the ties and identity elements that they had as places of origin.

The preservation and protection of the Amazon's biodiversity requires co-ordinated action

between the different actors, namely the Tikunas, the government and the institutions

involved. In this way, consultation makes it possible to design a strategic framework for

the development of integrated public policies, promoting a balance between economic

growth, social inclusion and sustainability. This understanding comes to light in a year in

which Brazil is hosting the United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP30

Adding this strategic axis to the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established

by the 2030 Agenda

of the United Nations (UN), four direct environmental SDGs were

defined and at least three SDGs related to environmental issues

Translation by the authors.

Brazil is preparing to host the 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30), to be held in Belém (PA) in

November 2025. Available at: https://cop30nopara.com.br/ [accessed on 31st March 2025].

The 2030 Agenda (2015-2030) was agreed and established at the 2015 New York Summit when the results

of the implementation of the predecessor Millennium Development Goals (2000-2015) were reviewed.

The environmental SDGs are SDG6 on drinking water and sanitation, SDG13 on climate action, SDG14 on

marine life and SDG15 on terrestrial life. At the same time, SDG7 on renewable and affordable energy, SDG11

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025, pp. 448-467

The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

451

As Lima (2020, n.p.) points out, the vast biodiversity of the Amazon region makes its

conservation a priority for the world's ecological balance. The Amazon's natural resources

are threatened by every human act of environmental degradation. On the other hand,

they weaken the livelihoods of the people who live in and from the forest, making

sustainable economic practices and indigenous peoples' ways of life impossible,

preventing them from playing a crucial role in sustainability and living in harmony with

the forest.

This article presents preliminary results from a research project that aims to understand

the dynamics created by the Tikunas' experiences in the environment. The role of the

Tikuna people in conserving biodiversity is the premise of the research, bearing in mind

the pressures from economic groups interested in exploring the wealth of the Amazonian

subspaces with the globalised world in a movement of "territorial fluidity" (Arroyo,

2001)

. According to Arroyo (2001), modernising actions bring with them natural

transitional crises and their consequent spatial repercussions on the triple frontier. This

is a region in which there is "free access" for peoples of the region, especially indigenous

peoples, to information and capital, where relations of "free trade" and co-operation are

established.

Albert and Kopenawa (2010) discussed the impact of environmental and economic

policies on indigenous peoples in the Amazon, who do not enjoy proper care, which

jeopardises their development, but also that of the biome which is home to unparalleled

biodiversity. The forest plays a crucial role in global climate regulation, generating socio-

environmental balances.

The research problem seeks to understand how the socio-environmental and cultural

impacts resulting from the relationship between the Tikuna peoples' economy of co-

operation, anchored in subsistence methods and global economic flows on the triple

Amazonian frontier (Brazil-Colombia-Peru) are articulated. This relationship has led to

conflicts, adaptations and territorial reconfigurations in a context of preserving the

Amazon.

The aim of the article is to analyse how the intersection between the Tikuna community's

economy of co-operation and economic discovery on the Amazon's triple frontier

reconfigures socio-environmental and cultural dynamics, investigating the mechanisms

of adaptation, resistance and conflict against the international pressures that infuse

territorial governance.

Specific objectives include:

a) find out the effect of economic activities such as agribusiness, mining and

deforestation on indigenous communities and the environment;

b) study the practices of sustainable use and conservation of natural resources carried

out by the Tikunas; and

on sustainable cities and communities, and SDG12 on sustainable production and consumption all relate to

environmental issues.

In Arroyo (2001), this is understood as the quality of national territories that allows the flows that structure

them to accelerate, the set of objects designed to guarantee movement, as is the case in the triple border

between Brazil, Colombia and Peru.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025, pp. 448-467

The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

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c) know the regional policies and international actions, such as the 2030 Agenda and the

SDGs, for the conservation of the Amazon and the sustainable development of Tikuna

communities.

Methodologically, the exploratory research allowed for the collection of data gathered in

the indigenous village and a multidisciplinary conceptualisation of the research problem,

incorporating ideas from the fields of International Relations, Anthropology, Ecology and

Economics. An indigenous epistemology was valued followed by a literature review with

critical analysis and fieldwork.

Based on Elman (2005), the use of "explanatory typologies" was adopted as a

methodological tool for qualitative research in international politics. Figueiredo Filho's

(2019) suggestion is to choose the appropriate models for the critical interpretation of

the results. In "The Interpretation of Cultures" (Geertz, 1978), the concept of "thick

description" is presented as cultural interpretation aimed at analysing the interpretation

of symbols and meanings embedded in social practice.

The techniques used include:

a) semi-structured interviews with members of the Tikuna community and other actors

who work with indigenous people as representatives of environmental and religious

organisations;

b) a documentary analysis of public policies and international agreements related to the

preservation of the Amazon;

c) carrying out fieldwork that included on-site observation of environmental and social

conditions in the frontier areas, namely visits to Tikuna territory and deforested

areas.

The article begins with a presentation of the methodology, objectives and approach to

the problem that reflects everyday intersections on the Brazil-Colombia-Peru frontier.

Finally, the Magüta people (Tikunas) are introduced from the "tradition of creation", the

elements of culture and identity, including language and their relationship with the land.

This is conceived as the sacred house for this Amerindian people who inhabit the lands

of the Amazon region without demarcation boundaries

The 2030 Agenda is presented as an international reference model for the goals and

targets. The SDGs can be understood as a proposal for sustainable development in its

economic, social and environmental dimensions, placing the Tikuna people as

collaborators for the protection of terrestrial ecosystems. In this context, SDG 15, which

is dedicated to the protection of terrestrial ecosystems (United Nations, 2015), is relevant

to the analysis. Finally, the application of local public policies and global initiatives such

as the 2030 Agenda is explained.

"In terms of its specific properties, the Ticuna language has points in common with some other indigenous

languages spoken in Brazil, while at the same time offering challenging characteristics, both in terms of

phonology and syntax" (Soares, 2008, n.p.). [...] Ticuna is important for knowledge of natural languages and

for understanding the history of indigenous peoples and languages spoken in Brazil

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025, pp. 448-467

The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

453

An on-site research was used to learn more about this group's lifestyle, practices and

sustainable use of available natural resources. The Tikunas' economy of co-operation is

essential to guarantee the sustainability of the forest, as it is based on the sustainable

use of natural resources.

The research involving the environment and indigenous peoples aims to analyse the

intersection between the economy of c-ooperation

and economic exploitation on the

Amazonian triple frontier. Knowledge of this reality is achieved by learning to walk the

Amazon trails with an eye on nature, broadening our understanding of the Tikunas' way

of life.

1. Anthropogenic factors in the overuse of nature

The socio-environmental relationship is ancestral, given that nature, in terms of spaces

and resources, whether living or inert, fauna or flora, sustains human life. It is in nature

that communities find sources of subsistence and maintenance, using it for productive

transformation and economic profitability. This relationship doesn't seem to be a

problem, as it has accompanied human life throughout the ages.

The concern arises whenever the interaction between human populations, in the multiple

forms of intervention - individual, community, corporate and business or state, national,

regional or international - result in environmentally intrusive models of action. These

tend to generate imbalances that threaten sustainability

, particularly in the long term.

Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoemer explore the concept of "The Age of Humans" in relation

to the Anthropocene approach, translated into the concept that

The world has entered a new geological era, the Anthropocene, which means

the era of human domination. It represents a new period in the history of the

planet, in which human beings have become the driving force behind

environmental degradation and the vector of actions that are catalysing a

probable ecological catastrophe (Crutzen and Stoemer, 2000, n.p.).

This is the period that began with the Industrial Revolution (Maldonado, 2017; Crutzen,

2002) and which, over time, has been boosted by economic expansion, which also allows

us to associate the more recent concept of the Capitalocene, largely analysed by Andreas

Malm (2020; Arons, 2020). In these approaches, the world of capital, understood as a

result of business and corporate action, overlaps with the interests of nature, often using

it without planning, degrading it and contributing to the depletion of parts or the whole,

possibly in an irreversible sense.

Vulnerable ecosystems, either identified as endemic or associated with natural

environments that are intensely sought after by extractive, processing and export

activities, are the most affected by unplanned human intervention. These are the cases

The term "economy of co-operation" refers to the activities practised jointly by the Tikunas for the benefit of

the group, such as subsistence farming, hunting, fishing and handicrafts.

Sustainability is understood here in line with the principles presented and defended in the Brundtland Report

(Brundtland [1987], 1991), namely systemic interdimensionality and intergenerational solidarity.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025, pp. 448-467

The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

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of river basins endowed with profitable minerals such as gold, which is mined, or dense

and tropical forests that are of extreme interest to the timber sector due to the existence

of hardwoods and centenary, large trees that guarantee high profitability margins.

Although it involves planning use, the realisation that there are global limits is

increasingly a reality within the scientific community. Will Steffen et al (2015) developed

this approach, warning of the inherent risks. This concept offers a framework for defining

the border zones between global balance and socio-environmental risk based on the

identification and characterisation of nine indicators

Currently, and with reference to the year 2023, of the nine global limits identified, six

have been exceeded and are in a situation of risk. In general, it can be considered that

four of these global limits are directly related to socio-environmental impacts. The

implications for communities living in dependence on the natural environment are

impactful, and reversing them is neither easy nor immediate. Climate change,

modification in the use of land, models of freshwater use, including quantity, and the

integrity of the biosphere in the genetic and functional sense are the dimensions that

have direct implications for the lives of local communities. These four dimensions directly

affect community life models, particularly if they are considered vulnerable communities

due to their ancestry and tradition in the relationship they establish with natural spaces

and resources. It should be emphasised that indigenous populations appear to be the

ones who feel the impacts of global limits most directly, since they are the ones who

maintain a close relationship with spaces and resources, depending on them.

2. The guardians of the forest: resistance to the interventions of

modernity

The Magüta people are also known as the Ticuna or Tikuna

. The Tikunas are one of the

most numerous indigenous groups in the Amazon

, an Amerindian people who inhabit

the border region between the Amazon Trapezium: Brazil (57,571), Colombia (8,000)

and Peru (6,982), totalling more than 72,553 natives

The nine global limits considered are climate change, with emphasis on the continuous rise in air and sea

temperatures, extreme weather events and their frequency; the incorporation of new entities, including

genetically modified organisms and microplastics; the destruction of atmospheric ozone with the worsening of

the hole in the ozone layer; the loading of atmospheric aerosols, namely the contamination of the atmosphere

by aerosols produced by humans or microparticles resulting from the burning of fossil fuels and forest fires;

the acidification of the oceans, in particular the worsening of coral bleaching with the possibility of extinction

in some regions of the world; biochemical flows, including the phosphorus and nitrogen cycles with excessive

use of chemical fertilisers in the soil; the use of fresh water, defined as a vital resource, under pressure from

intensive agriculture, grazing and livestock farming; the integrity of the biosphere, from a genetic and functional

point of view; and the change in land use, reflected in the transformation of forests, grazing land and marshes

that are used for intensive agriculture and livestock after deforestation. Available online at:

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1259855 [accessed on 31 March 2025].

Cf. National Museum/UFRJ (1985, p. 67-68). It is worth highlighting the origin of the Magüta people's

creation, told by the elders that Ngutapa, the God of creation, existed before everyone else, having no father

or mother.

Tikuna studies. Other denominations of the Ticuna language people. "The highest concentration of the Tikuna

population is in the group of people aged between 5 and 29, which represents approximately 58 per cent of

the total. If we add to this the figure for people under 5 years old, the percentage rises to 70.5 per cent, data

which shows that this locality is mostly made up of young people and children" (Nosso Povo, n.d., p. 02).

Cf. https://pib.socioambiental.org/pt/Povo:Ticuna [consulted on 31 March 2025] they make up the largest

indigenous group in the country.

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

May-October 2025, pp. 448-467

The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

455

De La Rosa (2000, p. 296) describes the social-historical situation of these peoples, which

was imposed on them by whites as "natural" and the result of divine punishment

Over generations, these groups have played a central role in protecting the Amazon

rainforest, building sustainable ways of life based on the use of natural resources. The

environment in which the Tikunas live, incorporating sustainable land practices into their

traditional way of life, is a model of harmonious coexistence with nature that must be

carefully learnt.

In villages or communities, traditional practices of sustainable management of natural

resources are no longer common, and plantations have given way to industrialised foods.

Posey (1999) emphasises that the cultural and spiritual knowledge of indigenous peoples

is essential for preserving biodiversity. Among the Tikunas, the distribution of areas for

cultivation, the enhancement of native species and the sustainable management of

natural resources are practices that guarantee the subsistence of families and generate

an ecological balance.

The big challenge facing the Tikuna communities living on the triple border is how to face

up to the severe challenges arising from devastation activities that threaten this

harmonious coexistence with "mother nature". This relationship is therefore threatened

by pressure from activities such as deforestation

, mining and the expansion of

agribusiness, which jeopardise both the forest and the communities themselves.

On the triple border

, the Ticuna language stands out as part of the intangible cultural

heritage

to be protected, given the importance of safeguarding biodiversity and the

cultural legacy of the peoples who live in harmony with the forest. In this context, the

preservation of indigenous peoples' culture, traditions and customs is fundamental to

environmental balance. Unlike the models of intensive exploitation that have generated

major environmental impacts in the region, the traditional practices of indigenous peoples

are based on respect and understanding of the natural cycles of biodiversity and the

interdependence between living beings.

Indigenous peoples are therefore guardians of the frontier and essential players in the

preservation of the Amazon. They inhabit vast areas of forest and possess ancestral

knowledge that promotes harmonious coexistence with nature. The rotation of cultivation

areas, the use of sustainable management techniques and the enhancement of native

Cf. De La Rosa (2000) on the myth of the fall of the Ticuna - "it tells that the first human beings, the magüta,

were powerful and immortal but became deadly and lost their powers by breaking away from the traditional

laws instituted by the god Yoi. As a result of this loss of their semi-divine condition, but also as another form

of punishment, the mnagúta, already converted into the ticuna, are dominated by the whites".

Deforestation, logging and forest fires associated with increasingly frequent and intense El Niño events could

significantly increase carbon emissions from changes in land use (Moutinho, 2006). Available at:

https://ipam.org.br/entenda/como-o-desmatamento-contribui-para-as-mudancas-climaticas/ [accessed on 31

March 2025]

The border situation combined with the intense migratory flow has meant that municipalities have built up

their socio-economic relations over the years. This is the case of the municipality of Leticia in Colombia and the

city of Tabatinga in Brazil, or the municipality of Puerto Nariño in Colombia and the city of Caballo Cocha in

Peru (Hayashi, 2020; Observatório Regional Amazônico, 2000, p. 2) Available at:

https://oraotca.org/pt/povosindigenas/ [accessed on 31 March 2025].

In this respect, it should be noted, as mentioned in footnote 5, that the Ticuna language has aspects in

common with other Brazilian indigenous languages.

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1

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The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

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species are examples of practices that guarantee the preservation of ecosystems, while

at the same time providing subsistence for communities

2.1. The Tikuna people: between forest preservation and exploitation

For the Tikunas, the Amazon rainforest is not just a geographical location, but a sacred

home and a source of spiritual and material sustenance. In their study, Da Silva et al

(2020) found that the vegetation of the Amazon is essentially made up of dense tropical

rainforest, open rainforest and campinarana.

These forest patterns are favourable for protection, hunting and other Tikuna practices,

rooted in ancestral knowledge about the land, biodiversity and natural cycles. At the

same time, they offer an effective model in favour of sustainability. The practices

developed contrast sharply with the predatory economic activities of multinational

companies that promote deforestation and gold mining

, using mercury, as well as other

products that have caused damage to the environment.

The current scenario in the Amazon is marked by rapid global changes, witnessed by the

growth of economic activities and the exploitation of natural resources. The growth of

these extractive or exploitative activities necessitates a critical analysis of the

interrelationship between the environment, the economy and indigenous peoples. These

socio-economic and environmental dynamics prove that the sustainability of the Amazon

will not be achieved without the active involvement of indigenous peoples.

The Tikuna people not only play a crucial role in safeguarding the Amazon's biodiversity,

but also emphasise the imperative of adopting and implementing policies that take into

account local and global realities. Strengthening their practices and guaranteeing their

territorial rights are essential actions for preserving the forest, making them a key player

in achieving the established goals and promoting socio-economic-environmental balance.

The role of indigenous peoples goes beyond mere cultural resistance. They are central

players in environmental preservation, contributing to ecological balance and climate

change mitigation through their activities to preserve the forest ecosystem and

consequently conserve species. Understanding this complex of interrelationships

between economic development and sustainability requires an integrated and systemic

approach that recognises the value of traditional indigenous knowledge, integrating it

into public policies and conservation projects.

Cunha (2009) argues that indigenous culture, which is often underestimated in public

conservation policies, contains fundamental knowledge for environmental preservation.

Indigenous lands, when properly protected, are more effective at conserving biodiversity

than conservation areas managed exclusively by the state (Brush, 1993).

Promoting a balance between economic growth and forest preservation in the Amazon

region is therefore urgently needed. The practices of a "cooperative economy" in

subsistence agriculture, hunting and fishing and handicrafts used by the indigenous

These elements were observed during the field research and confirmed by the interviews carried out.

Mining is a practice that, rather than being local or community-based, has come to the fore through the

activities of organised groups.

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VOL. 16, Nº. 1

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The Environment and the Economy of Co-Operation in the Triple Amazon Frontier. The Case

of the Tikuna People in Brazil, Colombia and Peru

Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

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people for their livelihoods are fragile in an environment manipulated by predatory

activities that invade their lands and appropriate natural resources.

2.2 The Tikuna forest, the sacred home

The preservation of the Amazon rainforest is one of the most challenging tasks for

Brazilian society, which requires collaboration between society, the government and the

Amazonian people, including international institutions that have an interest in the riches

of the Amazon.

The deforestation taking place in the region is compounded by rampant mining, climate

change, forest fires and illegal activities. Despite the Brazilian government's efforts to

implement projects such as the Amazon: Security and Sovereignty Plan (AMAS)

The AMAS demonstrates the Brazilian government's commitment to the 17 Sustainable

Development Goals, making it a normative framework for the development of policies

aimed at environmental protection, the reduction of inequalities and the promotion of

sustainable economic practices.

In particular, the Tikuna People agree with SDG15, which aims to "ensure the

conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater

ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands,

in accordance with obligations under international agreements" (United Nations, 2015,

n.p.)

By setting a target of 2030, Brazil is demonstrating its commitment to conserving

Permanent Preservation Areas (PPAs), Legal Reserves (LRs) and indigenous lands as

native vegetation. The Tikunas forest is the area hardest hit by the lack of effectiveness

of government policies and the indigenous peoples are the most affected.

In recent years, Brazil has failed to fulfil its commitment to use preservation systems

such as the National System of Conservation Units (SNUC), Permanent Preservation

Areas (APPs), Legal Reserves (RLs) and other categories

, to preserve - including - the

30% of indigenous lands in the Amazon, requiring urgent measures to meet the target.

The need for national policies and international commitments, such as the Paris

Agreement, must increasingly be in line with each other and put into practice.

It is worrying that the indigenous peoples, in this case the Tikunas and the riverside

communities, defined as the Amazonian man, inhabitants of the border areas between

AMAS is one of the main implementation strategies of the Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of

Deforestation in the Legal Amazon (PPCDAm) and was set up with the aim of strengthening the State's presence

in the Amazon Region and intensifying the fight against environmental and related crimes. [Consulted on

02.11.2024]. Available at: https://www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-planalto/noticias/2024/06/plano-

amazonia-seguranca-e-soberania-sera-fortalecido-com-injecao-de-r-318-milhoes [accessed on 31 March

2025].

By 2020, at least 30 per cent of the Amazon will be conserved, through systems of conservation units

provided for in the National System of Conservation Units (SNUC) Law, and other categories of officially

protected areas such as Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs), Legal Reserves (RLs) and indigenous lands with

native vegetation, 17% of each of the other terrestrial biomes and 10% of marine and coastal areas, mainly

areas of special importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, ensuring and respecting demarcation,

regularisation and effective and equitable management, with a view to guaranteeing interconnection,

integration and ecological representation in wider terrestrial and marine landscapes. Available at

www.ipea.gov.br [accessed on 31 March 2025].

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Jackson Bentes, Brígida Brito

458

Brazil, Colombia and Peru, (on the fringes of the cities of Tabatinga, Leticia and Santa

Rosa Island (see Map 1), have to live daily with the impacts generated by the advance

of predatory activities such as deforestation, logging, mining, extensive agriculture and

livestock farming, as well as fires caused by criminal groups.

Map 1. Socio-environmental diagnosis of the triple frontier: Tabatinga (Brazil), Leticia

(Colombia) and Santa Rosa (Peru).

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Figura-1-Localizacao-da-triplice-fronteira-entre-

Tabatinga-Brasil-Leticia-Colombia_fig31_358686796 [consulted on 31 March 2025]

As Castro (2002, p. 162) points out in "The Inconstancy of the Savage Soul", the thinking

of the indigenous people follows a different cognition from Western man, especially in

this relationship with nature. For the author, this is an intriguing and innovative way of

thinking that is exemplified in the characterisation and recursion of dualism and the

internationalising and self-referential formulation of the Amerindian.

The Tikunas' relationship with nature is an experience that strengthens their culture and

from natural resources they obtain everything necessary for the survival and well-being

of the indigenous community. This dynamic is part of what Castro (2002) calls the " fight

against the intellectual automatisms of our tradition"

For the Tikunas, the forest is also a source of spiritual knowledge, which means that, for

them, there is a symbolic relationship that transcends the material world, forming part

of a complex system of consolidation in which nature and the spirits interact directly in

the people's daily lives. This respect for nature is a valuable lesson in the era of climate

change and deforestation. The Tikunas have a model of sustainable existence that

contrasts with the exploitative use of forest resources by foreign companies or groups

that are invading the Amazon rainforest.

Translation by the authors.

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459

Map 2. Illustration of the Amazon region inhabited by the Tikunas on the Triple Frontier: Brazil,

Colombia and Peru

Source: Painting by a local craftsman in the city of Puerto Nariño - Colombia, own record.

The Amazon rainforest is more than a geographical area for the Tikunas (see map 2), it

is the birthplace of the sacred genus and the material and spiritual support of this group.

They have a customary use of resources in combination with the ecosystem, which

reveals an extensive knowledge of biodiversity. This respect for nature is an important

lesson in times of climate change and environmental destruction, as the Tikunas present

a model of sustainable living that contrasts with the predatory use of Amazonian

resources by companies or external groups that exploit the forest. They use traditional

resource management techniques that are in harmony with the ecosystem, including

subsistence farming, hunting and gathering. These practices are sustainable because

they do so in such a way as to guarantee the renewal of resources, while ensuring the

preservation of the forest.

It is in this space, characterised as a sacred home, that the indigenous build the spiritual

and material sustenance of their collectivity or, according to Castro (2002), preserve the

imagination as a non-canonical factor of thought and deconstruct pre-formed models,

conjecturing others.

3. The Tikunas and the 2030 Agenda

By proposing sustainable development in its economic, social and environmental

dimensions, the 2030 Agenda places indigenous peoples at the centre of discussions.

SDG15, which deals with the protection of terrestrial ecosystems, is a relevant issue for

the Tikunas, whose social organisation is intrinsically linked to the integrity of the forest

(United Nations, 2015). Descola (2012) argues that indigenous practices should be

recognised as models of sustainability, as they are based on the balanced management

of natural resources and the preservation of native species. In addition, these challenges

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are also linked to other SDGs, such as the fight against poverty (SDG1), food security

(SDG2) and the promotion of actions to combat malnutrition in traditional communities.

Many of the SDG targets address the most eminent dangers facing children

and adolescents, one of the most relevant being malnutrition, which threatens

children's lives and jeopardises their health and physical growth, their

education and their future. Chronic malnutrition is still a problem in the most

vulnerable groups, such as indigenous people, quilombolas and riverine

communities. According to the Ministry of Health, in 2018 the prevalence of

chronic malnutrition among indigenous children under five was 28.6 per cent

(UNICEF Executive Summary, 2019, p. 6). The figures vary between ethnic

groups, reaching 79.3 per cent of Yanomami children (Abrinq Foundation,

2023, p. 28)

Brush (1993, p. 151) emphasises that Indians have a solid knowledge of local ecosystems

and that this knowledge has been collected over centuries. This wisdom encompasses

practices capable of extending the diversity of the landscape and facilitating the

reconstruction of biodiversity in degraded ecosystems. The set of practices followed by

the Tikunas for the preservation of biodiversity is the result of a historical experience of

experiments and trials, currently reflecting a benevolent adaptation of man to the

environment.

If ecosystems and biodiversity are to be managed sustainably, it is imperative that the

complex knowledge-practice-belief of indigenous peoples is recognised and valued.

Encouraging resource management systems based on the community is a strategic way

of preserving this knowledge and guaranteeing environmental sustainability.

The fight against global climate change cannot just be reduced to external actions, but

must actively incorporate communities living in vulnerable ecosystems. The Tikunas'

traditional experience in sustainable land use, biodiversity management and fire control

can be added to sustainable development strategies and contribute effectively to

mitigating climate effects. This integration is especially fundamental in the Amazon

ecosystem, where the forest plays a key regulating role in the global climate balance.

Maintaining sustainable communities in the Amazon, such as those of the Tikuna, is a

complex but crucial task for the fulfilment of the SDGs and the commitments made under

the 2030 Agenda. This goal requires a concerted and unprecedented effort from all the

stakeholders involved, including governments, international organisations and civil

society. In particular, SDG13 - Action against global climate change - has important

synergies with other SDGs, such as SDG6 - Clean water and sanitation, SDG7 - Affordable

and clean energy, SDG9 - Industry, innovation and infrastructure, and SDG11 -

Sustainable cities and communities. Maintaining a sustainable community is a chimera,

but it is necessary and imperative if the SDGs are to be achieved, knowing that this

mission requires an unrivalled effort from everyone. In this sense, it is worth

remembering that it is not enough to demand effective public policies, but it is necessary

Translation by the authors.

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to ensure that they are applied on a geographical and foreign relations scale so that they

are manageable.

The UN's 2030 Agenda, which aims to achieve sustainable development in its three

economic, social and environmental dimensions, contains the conservation of terrestrial

ecosystems as one of its main objectives (SDG15 - Terrestrial Life). In addition, other

SDGs directly address the challenges facing the indigenous peoples of the Amazon, such

as the fight against poverty (SDG1), food security (SDG2), access to quality education

(SDG4) and the enactment of peaceful and inclusive societies (SDG16). In this way,

indigenous peoples such as the Tikunas not only appear as recipients of global goals, but

also as protagonists in implementing sustainable solutions for the Amazon.

The preservation of the Amazon has gone from a local challenge to a global concern, but

ultimately needs a process of articulation to allow local communities to move forward in

co-operation with the international community. The implementation of integrated policies

promotes economic development along the lines of sustainable development, so that

these policies are not just written in the 2030 Agenda, but form part of national, regional

and international policies for social inclusion and environmental sustainability.

It is therefore worth emphasising that the preservation of indigenous lands is the gateway

to the conservation of iniquitous areas of the forest. Research has shown that indigenous

lands are more efficient at conserving biodiversity than conservation units under the

administration of the Brazilian government.

3.1 How can the Tikuna people help achieve the 2030 agenda?

Over generations, the Tikuna groups have been responsible for preserving the Amazon

rainforest, developing lifestyles based on the sustainable use of natural resources.

The Brundtland Report ([1987] 1991) was the hegemonic impetus in opening up the

academic discussion of sustainable development, initiating the concept that served as

the basis for the SDGs. It is these models, often overlooked by traditional development

practices, that can be the basis for sustainable management and conservation at a global

level.

According to Sachs (2015) it is important to encourage citizens to use a holistic way of

dealing with global problems that today seem unsolvable, such as extreme and persistent

poverty. In this sense, it is important to explore the principles of the SDGs and

understand how innovative practices can promote sustainable development.

When researching the presence of plurilingualism in the Triple Frontier region, Viana and

Margotti (2021, p. 40) noted the high rate of violence against the original communities

that helped decimate hundreds of indigenous groups and, as a consequence, the

extermination of the languages they spoke. However, the same authors (Idem, p. 43)

note that the Ticuna language has been used predominantly. Consequently, the

continuity, or persistence in the use of the language, is the cultural development of the

alternate generations. A mere example can be found in the case of children and adults

laughing and arguing in the native language.

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In addition to their rich cultural and linguistic heritage, the Tikunas also live in an

environment where conservation of the Amazon rainforest is becoming increasingly

important. In this border triangle, the Ticuna language is a piece of intangible cultural

heritage. There is no doubt that it needs to be protected, in defence of the need to

preserve biodiversity and the heritage of people who live in complete harmony with the

forest.

As for knowledge of Spanish, almost the entire indigenous population has the

ability to speak it (around 84.5%), and a small percentage (8%) has no

knowledge of it, i.e. they only speak Tikuna. These large percentages indicate

that the literacy process in Tikuna is not recent. (...) With regard to the ability

to read and write in Tikuna, approximately half of the people belonging to this

people know how to read in their language, and an additional 34.5% also

know how to write it. These high percentages indicate that the process of

reading and writing in Tikuna is not new (Nosso Povo, n.d., pp. 2-3)

To this extent, preserving the culture, traditions and customs of indigenous people is

crucial to maintaining environmental balance. Posey (1999, p. 4) emphasises that the

cultural and spiritual knowledge of indigenous people plays a fundamental role in the

conservation of biodiversity. The spatial organisation of cultivation areas, the

enhancement of native species and the sustainable management of natural resources are

practices that guarantee the subsistence of these communities. Despite the imminently

pragmatic nature of these conservation and management techniques, traditional

indigenous peoples often understand them as intrinsic elements of a spiritual basis that

permeates their relationship with the environment.

All of creation is sacred, and the sacred and the secular are inseparable. Spirituality is

the highest form of consciousness, and spiritual consciousness is the highest form of

awareness. In this respect, one dimension of traditional knowledge is not local

knowledge, but knowledge of the universal as expressed in the local.

In indigenous and local cultures, there are specialists who are peculiarly aware

of the organising principles of nature, sometimes described as entities, spirits

or natural laws. Thus, knowledge of the environment depends not only on the

relationship between humans and nature, but also between the visible world

and the invisible spiritual world (Posey, 1999, p. 4)

In the Tikuna culture, management and conservation practices have this pragmatic

character, which is normally understood as knowledge coming from a spiritual base.

Unaware of the patterns of intensive exploitation, which can be defined as anthropogenic

factors (Crutzen, 2002) that have caused huge environmental impacts in the region, the

traditional practices of the Tikunas of the Triple Frontier and the other indigenous peoples

Translation by the authors.

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are based on a deep respect and knowledge of natural cycles, biodiversity and the

interdependence between living beings.

Indigenous people are thus the protagonists in the defence of the Amazon, working to

achieve the goals of the SDGs and in particular SDG15. These actors not only inhabit

immense jungles, but also have the old and precious memory that sets in motion a

respectful inhabitation of the natural world. An alternation of cultivated land, the adoption

of sustainable management practices and the enhancement of local species are just a

few cases of an activity that preserves ecosystems while offering livelihoods to

communities. These practices, often ignored by conventional development approaches,

can be used as models for global management and conservation, in line with the

principles outlined by the SDGs and adopted at the 2015 New York Summit.

From this, it becomes clear how inattention to circumstances such as maintaining the

culture, traditions and habits of indigenous populations is relatively responsible for

environmental degradation, and jeopardises not only the Amazonian ecosystem, but also

the very livelihoods of the populations that benefit from the forest, as well as the direct

implications for other ecosystems beyond the border.

3.2 Environmental conflicts and pressures on indigenous

communities: Challenges for sustainability

The triple border between Brazil, Colombia and Peru is one of the areas most impacted

by the illegal exploitation of natural resources associated with deforestation, mining and

arson. These practices, in addition to affecting biodiversity, generate challenging

consequences for environmental management and impact the survival of indigenous

communities, whose economic, social and traditional practices are jeopardised by

environmental degradation (Cunha, 2019).

The expansion of these predatory anthropogenic activities exacerbates the loss of

biodiversity and ecological imbalance, sharpening social conflicts and the marginalisation

of indigenous populations, who are forced to abandon their traditional ways of life in

search of viable economic alternatives.

Ramos (1998, p. 276) argues that indigenism in Brazil has been characterised by a

sequence of all-encompassing public policies, without reference to the actual needs of

the populations. And he emphasises the ambiguity of Brazilian society in relation to

indigenous populations, who were both celebrated as symbols of national maturity and

fought against as obstacles to development. This dual aspect manifests itself in public

policies that appear to be enveloping and often fail to meet the real needs of these

communities

In the border areas, such as between the cities of Tabatinga (Brazil), Leticia (Colombia)

and Santa Rosa Island (Peru), this issue materialises, with the expansion of agribusiness,

deforestation of timber, contamination of water resources, mining and livestock farming

putting pressure on local populations.

According to Almeida (2020), Santos (2019) and Little (2021), the challenges facing the

Tikuna peoples in implementing the preservation of the Amazon are increasingly

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sophisticated, especially in border areas. The loss of biodiversity and environmental

degradation not only jeopardise ecosystems, but also the food security, health and

culture of indigenous communities, whose ways of life are intrinsically connected to the

integrity of the forest. The preservation of traditional indigenous practices helps to

guarantee the sustainability of the Amazon and the achievement of the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs) set out in the 2030 Agenda. It is therefore essential to

recognise and strengthen the role of indigenous communities in environmental

preservation, encouraging public policies that integrate traditional knowledge. With a

collaborative approach, it will be possible to overcome the environmental and social

challenges that threaten the Amazon and its indigenous peoples.

Final considerations, even if partial

We present two points that were addressed based on the research carried out with the

Tikuna communities, bearing in mind the concern to clarify the balance between

economic development and the preservation of the Amazon rainforest through practices

inherent in a "cooperative economy". Culturally, the ecosystem with its biodiversity is

one of the richest in the world, straddling the triple Amazonian frontier between Brazil,

Colombia and Peru.

Economic relations are characterised by the presence of an "indigenous economy of

cooperation" very similar to what Godbout (1992) called community economies. Co-

operation can be understood as a system articulated with cosmovision, territorial

management and cultural reproduction. Sustainable government requires a dialogue for

"good living", in line with criticism of hegemonic sustainable development (Acosta, 2010)

in contrast to global agendas such as the SDGs.

Subject to highlighting the complex interaction between the environment, the economy

and indigenous communities, as well as their interdependence, it is necessary to adopt

an integrated approach that considers both the tradition of conservation practices and

the economic and social pressures imposed by modernisation (UNDP, 2020, p. 188).

The various challenges faced in the territory range from environmental conservation to

the sustainability of indigenous communities, while focussing on nature-based solutions

that can address the effects of extreme weather conditions on health, among other

aspects (UNDP, 2020, p. 188).

In understanding the theory of resource dependency, it can be seen that the

incorporation of global flows puts pressure on the autonomy of indigenous communities.

In this regard, the encouragement of unsustainable economic activities, such as

deforestation, mining and logging, and the pollution of water resources. Consequently,

these actions threaten the protection of the integrity of the forest and the survival of the

Tikunas. The fight against the preservation of the Tikunas' culture, traditions and customs

is a quest not only for social justice, but also for a policy of biodiversity conservation and

the promotion of effective sustainable development (UNDP, 2020, p. 188).

The lack of effectiveness of public policies and vulnerability in the implementation of

international agreements, such as the 2030 Agenda with the Sustainable Development

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Goals, are expressed in the Tikuna communities due to the lack of public policies in

general and focussed on environmental conservation.

The government bodies have had political programmes called Bolsa Verde on the

Brazilian side and Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais on the Colombian side, but

although these governments show an effort to protect indigenous territories and

recognise their fundamental rights, investments are needed to ensure the conservation

of the Amazon and the sustainable development of border communities (UNDP, 2020, p.

189).

"Global incentives also matter" in the service of the sustainable natural resource

management habits that the Tikunas have adopted and which are the key to the decisive

role of preserving the forest and fauna. Subsistence farming, fishing and handicrafts,

combined with an intrinsic respect for natural cycles, offer a coexistent model intertwined

with the harmony of nature. It is through proper contact with this theme that throughout

the article they have been compared with the ill-fated activities of river pollution, illegal

logging and mining. These Tikuna practices not only guarantee the communities'

livelihoods, but also contribute to conserving biodiversity and controlling the effects of

climate change (UNDP, 2020, p. 188).

In principle, the protection of the Amazon triple frontier requires effective international

and regional co-operation, the implementation of sound policies and respect for the value

of traditional indigenous knowledge. A holistic and inclusive approach is required to

preserve the Amazon rainforest and guarantee the well-being of the communities that

depend on it, in accordance with the principles of the 2030 Agenda (UNDP, 2020, p. 189)

and with a focus on building a sustainable future for both human life and nature.

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