OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL. 16, Nº. 1

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297

A SEMIOTIC DECODING OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND

PORTUGUESE-SPEAKING COUNTRIES

KAIYAO PENG

a22091100212@cityu.edu.mo

Doctoral candidate at the City University of Macau (China), where she focuses on the intricate

dynamics between China and Portuguese-speaking countries. Her research spans political

science, international relations, cross-cultural comparison, sustainable governance, and regional

cooperation in the China Greater Bay Area. Peng is involved in City University of Macau’s 2024

research program “Research on the History of Relations between Macau and Portuguese-speaking

Countries”, aimed at deepening the understanding of Macau’s political and cultural exchanges

with Lusophone nations. In 2023, she contributed to the program “Investing in Cultural Diversity:

Portuguese-speaking Countries”, sponsored by the Macau Foundation, where she authored book

chapters exploring the cultural and linguistic diversity within the Lusophone world. Her academic

pursuits include fostering greater understanding and cooperation between China and Portuguese-

speaking countries, making significant contributions to political science and international

relations. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8180-0867

FRANCISCO JOSE LEANDRO

fleandro@um.edu.mo

Ph.D. in Political Science and International Relations from the Catholic University of Portugal.

From 2016 to 2017, he participated in a post-doctoral research program on state monopolies in

China, focusing on One Belt One Road studies. In 2014, 2017, and 2020, he was awarded the

Institute of European Studies in Macau (IEEM) Academic Research Grant, a major component of

the Asia-Europe Comparative Studies Research Project. From 2014 to 2018, he served as the

Program Coordinator at the Institute of Social and Legal Studies, Faculty of Humanities,

University of Saint Joseph in Macau, China. From 2018 to 2023, he was the Associate Dean of the

Institute for Research on Portuguese-Speaking Countries at the City University of Macau, China.

Currently, he is an Associate Professor with Habilitation in International Relations at the Faculty

of Social Sciences, University of Macau (China), and Deputy Director of the Institute for Global

and Public Affairs. His recent publications include: Steps of Greatness: The Geopolitics of OBOR

(2018), University of Macau; The Challenges, Development and Promise of Timor-Leste (2019),

City University of Macau; The Belt and Road Initiative: An Old Archetype of a New Development

Model (2020), Palgrave Macmillan; Geopolitics of Iran (2021), Palgrave Macmillan; The Handbook

of Special Economic Zones (2021), IGI Global; Disentangled Visions on Higher Education:

Preparing the Generation Next (2023), Peter Lang Publishers; The Palgrave Handbook of

Globalization with Chinese Characteristics (2023), Palgrave Macmillan; Changing the Paradigm of

Energy Geopolitics: Resources and Pathways in the Light of Global Climate Challenges (2023),

Peter Lang Publishers; Portuguese-speaking Small Island Developing States: The Development

Journeys of Cabo Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Timor-Leste (2023), Palgrave Macmillan;

and The Palgrave Handbook on China-Europe-Africa Relations (2025), Palgrave Macmillan.

Francisco Leandro is a member of OBSERVARE (Observatory of Foreign Relations), established in

1996 as a center for studies on International Relations at the Autonomous University of Lisbon,

Portugal. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1443-5828

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Kaiyao Peng, Francisco José Leandro, Cátia Miriam Costa

298

CATIA MIRIAM COSTA

catia.miriam.costa@iscte-iul.pt

Researcher at the Centre for International Studies and an Invited Assistant Professor at Iscte —

University Institute of Lisbon (Portugal). She is Director of the Chair of Interregionalism and

Global Governance at the European Institute of International Studies (Stockholm/Salamanca).

She has coordinated and participated as a researcher in several international research projects

financed by the European Commission, the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology

and the CYTED — Ibero-American Program of Science and Technology for Development. She also

develops teaching and research sessions with the University of Macao, the University of Granada,

and the City University of Macao. She has published several scientific articles and book chapters

in international journals and printing houses. She has also published regularly in the periodical

press and has commented on Portuguese news channels. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7666-

5661

Abstract

This paper is the first in a series that examines how China engages in high-level political

discourse (HLPD) via political speeches, bilateral and multilateral agreements, official

documents, and media reports, with Portuguese-speaking countries (PSCs). Political discourse

serves as a tool through which states convey policies, diplomacy, ideologies, and national

image. For China, under the leadership of President Xi Jinping, there has been an explicit

focus on building a robust discourse system to enhance its international communications and

project itself as a peaceful, positive global power. In recent years, China has steadily increased

its high-level exchange activities with PSCs, prompting this series of studies. The current

paper focuses specifically on Portugal. Using official government sources, including websites

of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, this study collected 32 textual samples of HLPD from high-

level political communication events (HLPCEs) that took place between March 2013 and

October 2022, during President Xi’s first two terms in office. These events involved Xi Jinping,

former Head of Government Li Keqiang, and Minister of Foreign Affairs Wang Yi. The

innovative aspect of this study lies in its use of semiotic analysis to decode the HLPD samples.

This analysis concludes that China places significant emphasis on sustainable cooperation,

particularly in trade and technology, while fostering people-to-people exchanges and human

bonds.

Keywords

Portugal, China, Portuguese-speaking Countries, Political Narrative, Semiotics, Belt and Road

Initiative (B&RI), International Relations.

Resumo

Este artigo é o primeiro de uma série que examina a forma como a China se envolve em

discursos políticos de alto nível (DPN) através de discursos políticos, acordos bilaterais e

multilaterais, documentos oficiais e relatórios dos media, com os países de língua portuguesa

(PLP). O discurso político é um instrumento através do qual os Estados transmitem políticas,

diplomacia, ideologias e imagem nacional. No caso da China, sob a liderança do Presidente Xi

Jinping, tem havido um enfoque explícito na construção de um sistema de discurso robusto

para melhorar as suas comunicações internacionais e projetar-se como uma potência global

pacífica e positiva. Nos últimos anos, a China tem aumentado de forma constante as suas

actividades de intercâmbio de alto nível com os CPS, o que motivou esta série de estudos. O

presente documento centra-se especificamente em Portugal. Utilizando fontes oficiais do

governo, incluindo sites do Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros, este estudo recolheu 32

amostras textuais de HLPD de eventos de comunicação política de alto nível (HLPCEs) que

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ocorreram entre março de 2013 e outubro de 2022, durante os dois primeiros mandatos do

Presidente Xi. Estes eventos envolveram Xi Jinping, o antigo Chefe de Governo Li Keqiang e

o Ministro dos Negócios Estrangeiros Wang Yi. O aspeto inovador deste estudo reside na

utilização da análise semiótica para descodificar as amostras do HLPD. Esta análise conclui

que a China coloca uma ênfase significativa na cooperação sustentável, particularmente no

comércio e na tecnologia, ao mesmo tempo que promove os intercâmbios interpessoais e os

laços humanos.

Palavras-chave

Portugal, China, Países de Língua Portuguesa, Narrativa Política, Semiótica, Iniciativa Faixa e

Rota (B&RI), Relações Internacionais.

How to cite this article

Peng, Kaiyao, Leandro, Francisco José & Costa, Cátia Miriam (2025). A Semiotic Decoding of

Political Discourse Between China and Portuguese-Speaking Countries. Janus.net, e-journal of

international relations. VOL. 16, Nº. 1. May-October 2025, pp. 297-323. DOI

https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.16.1.14.

Article submitted on 23rd January 2025 and accepted for publication on 6th March 2025.

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Kaiyao Peng, Francisco José Leandro, Cátia Miriam Costa

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A SEMIOTIC DECODING OF POLITICAL DISCOURSE BETWEEN

CHINA AND PORTUGUESE-SPEAKING COUNTRIES

KAIYAO PENG

FRANCISCO JOSÉ LEANDRO

CÁTIA MIRIAM COSTA

1. Introduction

The People’s Republic of China and the Portuguese Republic (hereafter China and

Portugal, respectively) have had more than 45 years of bilateral relations particularly

over areas of trade and investment. In fact, their relations were first conducted via the

Portugal-China Chamber of Commerce and Industry. In the last 25 years, there have

been three main reasons to support close(r) ties between the two nations: first, it was

the milestone retrocession of Macau to the Chinese sovereignty in 1999; second, China’s

reform and opening-up policy set a good tone for friendly cooperations. “Bringing in”

foreign investment and Chinese enterprises “going out” form the rationale for this

bilateral relationship. President Xi has continually emphasized this open approach to the

Belt and Road Initiative (hereafter B&RI)—and Portugal signed a B&RI Memorandum

(MoU) in 2018; third, against the backdrop of globalization, Portugal has been afforded

prominence in China’s geo-economic strategy towards the European Union (EU), as

Portugal provides fast-track access to important EU market space (Fernandes et al.,

2022, p. 68).

At the same time, Portugal is a participant of the B&RI, through which it seeks more

cooperation opportunities. In November 2017, Portugal became the first EU country to

establish a blue partnership with China. The two countries have jointly planned concrete

cooperation and set up working groups, such as operating marine academic exchanges

and establishing cooperative laboratories and shared centers for marine science.

Likewise, China participates in constructing the Atlantic Joint Research Centre. These

activities are making “China-Portugal Blue Partnership” a sort of branding to promote

their relationship as a reference to all PSCs

Acknowledgement: This project has been generously supported by the University of Macau's Project SGR2023-

00026-FSS on the Geopolitics of Brazil and the South Atlantic.

Portuguese-Speaking Countries

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An examination of the discourse between China and Portugal will unveil insights into how

the two interact politically. China has evolved into an important economic partner of

Portugal (Xinhuanet, 2018). Consequently, on both sides, discussions mainly concern

trade, investment, culture and economic cooperation, and that is reflected in China’s

high-level political discourse (hereafter HLPD). Given Portugal’s relatively small market

and desire for foreign investment, it is expected to continue to place a high political

emphasis on strengthening economic ties with China. Simultaneously, bilateral political

discussions may encompass matters such as EU-China relations, and these discussions

may in turn lead to exploration of topics related to trade agreements such as the B&RI,

intellectual property rights, and environmental sustainability.

After a brief introduction of Sino-Portuguese relationship, the authors put forward a

foundation review of existing theories, which serves as a roadmap for developing

methodological design. After this theoretical framework, we present a methodology for

interpreting HLPD, including semiotics of textual analysis, followed by explaining what

the Chinese HLPD

is building, with the consideration of two-state interaction. Finally,

we conclude, drawing on China and Portugal’s narrative cooperative preferences, the

future development tendency.

2. Literature Review

The conceptual core of this research is to understand how the Chinese string together

various discourses to build political narratives. The particular discourses we select to

examine in this study are high-level political speeches.

Discourse transcends conversations: a discourse is a sequence of statements and other

instruments that forge what is known as a “discourse world” or “discourse ontology”.

Discoursers meticulously use words and language to build a narrative space, where ideas,

information and other intended meanings are arranged to craft a specific version of

reality, to be decoded by the audience (i.e., the receiver) (Chilton, 2004). Political

discourses, in particular, hold great potential to influence if they are able to structure,

even manipulate information, events and actions to craft stories—i.e., about who did

what, to whom, when, where, and for what purpose; the characters and elements in the

stories are the discourse referents, each playing a specific role based on its interrelations

with others. Political discourses form the basis for these stories—narratives—to project a

version of reality that suits a particular political agenda. In other words, using different

discourses to form a storyline can become a platform for envisioning and launching

political narratives (Jørgensen & Phillips, 2002). This very fact that discourse can be a

formidable rhetorical tool to mold, steer and even ferment public beliefs and perceptions

on society as well as the world is what political discourses take advantage of to turn

intangible notions into reasoning and justifications for political actions (Chilton, 2004;

Tannen et al., 2015). Such discourses can significantly influence public behaviors and

High-Level Political Discourse

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decision-making regarding such matter as societal structures, national identity, security,

and governance.

Figure 1. The Formation of Political Narratives

Types of

Political Discourses ▶

Political Narrative ▶

Audiences ▶ Perceptions

Congratulatory messages

Political speeches

Meetings

Editorials (newspapers

and magazines)

Interviews

(…)

Storyline

Discourse referents

“Good stories”

Ideologies

Power structures

Intended to

foster

positive

public

perspectives

Simplicity

Appealing

Positive

Seeking

retribution,

Adherence

and support

General

Public

Decision-

makers

Media

Outlets

Source: Authors

Narratives on the other hand are assemblages of discourses that are cherry-picked and

sequenced into stories that appear coherent, logical and even convincing (Livholts and

Tamboukou, 2015). As such, language and rhetoric are part and parcel of narratives,

facilitating narratives’ weaving together of events, characters, and settings to offer

glimpses into both the personal and collective human layers beyond mere facts.

Hinchman and Hinchman (1997) and Riessman (2008) underline the formidable capacity

of narratives as their “ability to select, organize, and emphasize various discourse

elements, thereby influencing the audience’s interpretation”.

Political narratives are logical sequences of political discourses within a certain political

context, and typically have a well-defined structure (e.g., a chronology). Such narratives,

motivated by political intentions, utilize contexts, characters, and plots to induce

immediate, simple individual perceptions and stances. Political narratives that are

particularly appealing and persuasive have a logical facade and the ability to transform

political matters into comprehensible and emotionally compelling tales. Figure 2

illustrates how discourses and narratives intertwine in a political framework.

To understand the narrative ability (what politicians intend to communicate), political

reality (the actual events), and their complex interplay that pertain to a political narrative

requires narrative analysis (Shenhav, 2006, p. 247). For example, using B&RI-related

narratives as a basis, Costa (2020, p. 27) suggests that narrative analysis is “critical

because every political or social fact needs a story. A good story captures the reader or

listener and maintains his or her curiosity to know more or even to participate.

Consequently, a narrative is essential to have a process of communication and to induce

reactions towards the narrated fact or story.”

While narrative analysis focuses on storytelling, discourse analysis examines the use of

language. Moreover, discourse analysis can be conducted through a semiotic lens to also

study the signs and symbols embedded in the text to unveil their intricate meanings.

Combining discourse analysis with semiotics can be particularly powerful for dissecting

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political narratives, as it examines the strategic use of symbols in crafting messages.

These messages offer a deeper understanding on how narratives are constructed,

conveyed, and are meant to be interpreted. In other words, they offer insights into the

nature of the political communication, illuminating how it aims to influence public opinion

and the political landscape.

For instance, Sengul’s (2019) study on Australian right-wing populism showcases how

linguistic choices and symbolic imagery are strategically woven to construct compelling

narratives around themes like “national identity”, “otherness”, and “crisis”. These

narratives significantly impact public sentiment by framing national identity against

perceived threats, thereby mobilizing support and directing political discourse. Similarly,

using semiotics, El-Nawawy and Elmasry analyze the “strongman” archetype in

leadership (2016) to expose the complex relationship between visual and textual

symbols. In China’s high-level political communications, we notice the repeated use of

symbolic words such as “prosperity”, “harmony”, “common destiny”, “(consultative)

democracy” to bring a Confucian and patriarchal aspect into the political discourse. These

symbolic words tap into social norms and values to elevate the emitters’ appeal and

reinforce their political legitimacy. By adopting a semiotic perspective, we can unveil the

layered meanings within the political communications, uncovering the ideologies, power

structures, and cultural schemas that drive the political narratives into actions.

In essence, semiotic discourse analysis allows for a nuanced examination of how political

entities leverage language and symbols to construct meaning and narratives, establish

authority, and influence societies. Through such scholarly inquiry, the multifaceted

nature of political rhetoric and its impact on shaping political landscapes and public

consciousness is more thoroughly understood. As asserted by Costa (2020, pp. 27–28):

Through the merge of spaces, time and channels, political discourses became

a product to be received by peers and by the public sphere in general. Media

and political communication share attention and develop different channels of

communication, which are mingled. The globalization of the communicational

flows made of international communication a much attractive way to design

international relations. Discourse became a crucial factor for the international

narrative of the countries.

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Semiotic discourse analysis has previously been used to study the rhetoric of such

political figures as former U.S. President Reagan (Lewis 1987), former Israeli Prime

Minister Sharon (Shenhav 2005), Russian President Putin (Bacon 2012), and Indonesian

President Widodo (Surdiasis & Eriyanto 2018). However, despite extensive research at

the global level, political discourses and narratives in China remain understudied. It is

therefore the intention of this paper to fill this gap and shed light on Chinese political

communications. This research employs a qualitative analysis of Chinese political

discourse vis-a-vis the Portuguese Republic. Specifically, we select samples of political

speeches—which are public statements of political intentions toward a target audience,

and are a type of political discourse that can become integral to the formation of political

narratives—from specific events and arranged them chronologically. This sequence of

speech samples illustrates a comprehensive narrative within the consideration of a

broader political context.

2.1. Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach that examines how

language reflects, reinforces, or challenges power dynamics and social inequalities.

Emerging in the late 1980s, CDA was spearheaded by scholars such as Norman

Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, and Teun van Dijk (Blommaert & Bulcaen, 2000). This approach

combines linguistic theory with social theory to analyze discourse as a form of social

practice (Wodak & Meyer, 2001). CDA focuses on how discourse shapes and is shaped by

social structures, power relations, and ideologies (Fairclough, 1995). It aims to uncover

hidden meanings and power asymmetries in texts and conversations, revealing how

language use can perpetuate or resist social hierarchies (Van Dijk, 1993). For instance,

CDA has been used to analyze media reports, political speeches, and educational

materials to identify instances of manipulation, discrimination, and exploitation (Wodak,

1997).

One of the key principles of CDA is that discourse is both socially constitutive and socially

conditioned (Fairclough, 1992). This means that while discourse shapes social realities,

it is also influenced by existing social structures and power relations. CDA researchers

often employ a variety of methods, including textual analysis, ethnography, and critical

linguistics, to examine how discourse operates in different contexts (Van Leeuwen,

2008). CDA is particularly concerned with making power relations visible and challenging

dominant ideologies (Wodak & Meyer, 2001). By analyzing how language functions in

various domains, such as politics, media, and education, CDA provides insights into how

discourse can be used to maintain or challenge social inequalities and political hierarchy

(Blommaert & Bulcaen, 2000).

When addressing the relationship between two states, CDA can be helpful by showing us

if one of the parties was more active in setting the agenda process or if one of the states

takes advantage of the weaknesses of the negotiation partner. Simultaneously, we can

verify if the two parties' messages were clear and understood the same way.

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3. Methodology

The study is divided into three parts: (1) first, data collection (sampling) within a

timeframe, and transformation of raw materials into line codes (encoding); (2) second,

HLPD analysis—using comparison to identify commanding themes under the ground

theory methodological guidance; (3) third, the reason for unveiling the rationale of the

high-level political narrative (HLPN), assembling all the HLPD codes (Table 1). In addition,

this methodology allows for a comprehensive analysis of the bilateral communication

events. By semiotically decoding the HLPD, the study highlights stories and identifies

cooperative prospects between China and Portugal, contributing to decoding China and

Portugal's cooperation objectives and their future development perspectives.

Step 1 Collecting and organizing sources of HLPN relating to High-Level Political

Communicative Events (HLPCEs)

In this section, we explain the model that we use to analyze China’s political narratives

towards Portugal (Table 1).

Step 1A: We define the period of research as from March 2013 to October 2022, which

aligns with the Chinese HoS’s

three terms in office (see Figure 3). This timeframe is

selected for two reasons: first, during this period, China and Portugal established a blue

partnership (2017) and strengthened their 2005 comprehensive partnership; second,

during this period under the leadership of President Xi, China became a global power,

and it would be interesting to understand how China has been regarded by the PSCs.

Figure 3. The Chinese HoS’s Terms in Office

First term

Second term

Third term

From March 2013

to March 2018

From April 2018

to October 2022

From November 2022

to November 2026

Source: Authors

Step 1B: We sampled only HLPCEs that involved three key Chinese figures — the HoS,

President Xi Jinping; the Head of Government, former Prime Minister Li Keqiang; and the

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Wang Yi — as they epitomize the apex of Chinese governance.

In addition, we used political relevance as a criterion for selecting the discourse samples.

The resulting dataset comprises samples from 32 HLPCEs which included, for example,

talks held between Xi and President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa (Portugal) in April 2019, a

congratulatory message that Li sent to Portuguese Prime Minister António Costa on his

re-election in March 2022, and discussions held between Wang and Portuguese Minister

Head of State.

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of Foreign Affairs João Gomes Cravinho in September 2022, showing a diverse array of

high-level diplomatic interactions.

Step 1C: To gather records of bilateral engagements, we examined official Chinese

websites in detail, focusing on the English version of their content. These websites include

those of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Xinhuanet. We classified the HLPCEs into three

distinct types: (1) speeches and messages; (2) meetings; and (3) newspaper articles

(NA). The use of different official documents offers us a tool to analyze and interpret the

information retrieved from official channels, ensuring a comprehensive and structured

investigation into the dynamics of bilateral engagements.

Step 2 HLPD analysis of each HLPCE

— Employing NVivo 14 for textual analysis,

and transforming content of HLPCEs into HLPD textual codes (Table 1)

Step 2A: The coding process is facilitated by NVivo 14 (qualitative textual analysis

software). With features including coding, thematic analysis, and visualization tools,

NVivo 14 allows users to import large volumes of text data (e.g., documents, interviews,

surveys, etc.) to be analyzed in depth.

Upon importing the text samples into NVivo 14, we created nodes to organize the data.

In NVivo, nodes are containers that hold references to specific themes or categories

identified during the research, while codes refer to the process of labeling parts of the

text with these themes or categories. In this way, coding is the act of tagging or marking

the data, whereas nodes serve as the organizational structure that stores all the coded

references related to a particular theme. To organize the data according to the study

periods, nodes were created for each period (e.g., Period 1: March 2013 –March 2018”

and “Period 2: April 2018 – October 2022.”). These nodes helped to structure the data

temporally, allowing us to analyze changes in political discourse over time. Within these

broader period nodes, sub-nodes (or child themes) were created based on specific

themes that emerged from the data. For example, a parent node labeled “Development”

might have child nodes like “Sustainable Development” or “Practical Development” to

capture more specific aspects of the theme. After coding the text samples, we queried

the coded text to identify the most frequently appearing words and patterns, which

helped reveal the underlying main themes. This parent-and-child node hierarchy lends

more granularity and depth to the analysis, ensuring that the results are nuanced and

provide a comprehensive understanding of the intricate themes embedded within the

political narratives under examination.

Step 2B: Sentiments, which are the attitude or tone that coats each reference, are a

pivotal component of the NVivo 14 analytical framework. This sentiment analysis involves

categorizing the nature of the references related to each theme as either positive,

negative, or neutral. Attributing such sentiment labels to the references also adds nuance

to understanding the main and child themes, thereby enhancing the overall depth and

richness of our interpretation of the political discourse.

Step 2C: The data gathered from steps 2A and 2B forms the basis for matrix coding

High-Level Political Communication Events.

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queries, leading to the creation of charts specific to Period 1 (Table 2) and Period 2 (Table

3) for the discussion section. A comprehensive overview of the entire period is presented

in the Conclusion (Table 4), which contains a classification by sentiment of the various

themes. The outcome of this analysis informs the subsequent discussion, where the

distinctive characteristics characterizing each of the two periods of HLPD are thoroughly

examined and expounded upon. This methodological approach enhances the granularity

of the study, allowing for a nuanced exploration of the evolving sentiment dynamics

within the political discourse.

Step 3 Decoding of HLPN via Semiotics

Step 3A: This is where we combine discourse analysis with semiotics to examine the

HLPD samples. Semiotic analysis is applied both to individual texts and to the broader

political narratives they form. While semiotic discourse analysis uncovers meanings,

symbols, and communicative elements in specific speeches or documents, semiotic

narrative analysis reveals how these pieces connect to construct a cohesive political

narrative. Using this approach, we can interpret both detailed discourse elements and

the overarching high-level political narrative (HLPN) between China and Portugal.

Step 3B: It draws the conclusion by assessing China and Portugal’s cooperation,

development trends, and challenges. This step also outlines future directions for their

relationship, emphasizing how political narrative can shape continued collaboration and

growth.

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4. Discussion and Findings

This section decodes themes from the HLPDs between China and Portugal during the

first two terms of Chinese President Xi’s tenure (March 2013 to March 2018, and April

2018 to October 2022). Significant shifts in crucial themes relating to the three

prospectives applied above can be observed (Tables 2 and 3).

(1) Between March 2013 and March 2018

In this period, the HLPDs between China and Portugal concentrated on five central themes

(see Table 2): cooperation, relations, development, exchanges, and market (these

were the five most frequently appearing codes), each offering a distinct perspective on

the evolving dynamics between the two nations.

Cooperation emerges as a thematic linchpin that not only lends an organizing principle

to the collaborative efforts between China and Portugal, but also accentuates the

intrinsically multifaceted nature of their bilateral ties. There is a particularly noteworthy

emphasis on practical cooperation, which comprises a diverse array of initiatives to foster

economic and strategic collaborations. However, while references to the main theme of

cooperation and its child themes have predominantly positive sentiments which highlight

the constructive nature that is part and parcel of collaborations, most of these references

also carry a discernible neutrality stemming from cautiousness and pragmatism. (There

is one negative reference, which underscores the complexity inherent in navigating

cooperative endeavors.)

The frequent mention of “practical cooperation” not only spotlights the diversity in

initiatives but also reflects the pragmatism in their approach toward economic and

strategic collaboration. One source, for example, notes Chinese President Xi as saying:

[I h]ope that both sides take this as an opportunity to deepen practical

cooperation in such areas as economy and trade, technology, investment,

agriculture and animal husbandry, tourism and maritime affairs and to

promote the [sic] China-Portugal relations to a new level (Ministry of Foreign

Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2014).

Under the theme of relations, China-Portugal ties engenders more pronounced positivity

in sentiments. This positivity does not stem from recognizing the inherently constructive

nature of cooperation, but rather results from diplomatic achievements and optimism in

the trajectory of the two countries’ relationship. Moreover, there is a notable absence of

negative references associated with relations, which reinforces the generally optimistic

tone. However, there is also a substantial number of neutral references to suggest a

certain cautiousness in optimism toward the peace and wellness of the ever-evolving

political environment between the two nations. For instance, in 2016, as then Chinese

Head of Government Li said, China and Portugal’s bilateral relations would always

maintain stability and health, and place emphasis on positive diplomatic achievements

(Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2016c).

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On the other hand, the theme of development emerges as a nexus of common

development and sustainable progress. References to development are predominantly—

but not overtly—positive (there are no negative references) and underscore a shared

commitment to economic, social, and political progress. A case in point is the recurrent

child theme, common development. It is under this theme that Forum Macao has, since

being established in 2013, played an irreplaceable role in boosting economic and trade

cooperation, facilitating cultural exchanges, as well as promoting development in both

China (including the Macao SAR) and the PSCs (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s

Republic of China, 2016a).

Narratives in the realm of exchanges unravel a multifaceted interaction spanning the

cultural, political, and personnel dimensions. Here, exchanges between China and

Portugal have induced some positive sentiments to underlines the richness and depth of

these interactions, but a considerably larger number of neutral references (though no

negative references) can be construed as only a generally optimistic tone, highlighting a

nuanced assessment of the opportunities and challenges embedded in such exchanges.

For instance, an emphasis on cultural exchanges signals a positive tone, as China

intensifies cultural exchanges with Portugal from high-level to personal (Ministry of

Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2016b).

Market is a main theme that relates exclusively to economics, and highlights potential

areas of collaboration and market openness between China and Portugal. The positive

sentiments here may signify a presence or even abundance of economic opportunities,

but the apparent neutral and negative references here also shows cautiousness in both

approach and outlook pertaining to economic collaborations, marking a departure from

the predominantly positive tone in cooperation and exchanges. This cautiousness may

be attributed to the complexities associated with market-related endeavors. For example,

there is a focus on third-party market cooperation—e.g., in 2016, then Chinese Head of

Government Li called on both China and Portugal to “develop third-party markets and

promote cooperation in technology jointly” (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s

Republic of China, 2016a)—which underscores a circumspect optimism toward economic

collaborations.

Overall, unveiled in Table 2 is a dynamic tapestry of China-Portugal relations

characterized by cooperation, diplomatic relations, developmental aspirations,

multifaceted exchanges, and economic considerations. While general positivity threads

through cooperation, relations, and exchanges, the sentiments and reception toward

each theme is more nuanced. The fact that relations and development have no negative

references suggests optimism in outlook, while the evident caution in market points to a

more measured approach toward economic collaborations. Understanding these nuances

contributes to a comprehensive view of the complex diplomatic landscape between China

and Portugal expressed through the political narratives during this period.

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Table 2. Analysis on Sino-Portuguese HLPN from March 2013 to March 2018

Parent theme

Five most frequently mentioned child

themes

Total

number of

references

(among 32

events)

Sentiment

Cooperation

practical cooperation, third-party market

cooperation, investment cooperation,

multilateral cooperation, commercial cooperation

Relations

bilateral relations, China-Portugal relations, EU-

China relations, Portugal relations, political

relations

Development

common development, sustainable

development, development strategies,

development fund, development achievements

Exchanges

cultural exchanges, high-level exchanges,

Portugal-China exchanges, political exchanges,

personnel exchanges

Market

third-party market cooperation, mutual market

openness, financial market, European market,

market potential

Source: Authors

(2) From April 2018 to October 2022

From April 2018 to October 2022, high-level China-Portugal relations unfolded through a

number of themes, each adding nuance to the diplomatic discourse: cooperation,

relations, development, exchanges, which have also been featured in the previous period,

as well as partnership, trade, and trust.

Of these themes, cooperation takes precedence as it amasses a notable number of

references to reflect an intensification of commitment between the two nations. The five

most prominent child themes—practical cooperation, third-party market cooperation,

bilateral cooperation, maritime cooperation, and economic cooperation—exemplify the

multifaceted nature of the collaborative efforts between China and Portugal, while the

predominantly positive sentiments associated with these themes acknowledge not only

the beneficial outcomes that such collaborations have already achieved but also the

strategic cooperations that the two nations can look forward to. For example, as Chinese

President Xi stated, China and Portugal should “lead the way in growing the blue economy

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by promoting maritime cooperation” (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic

of China, 2018a).

As in the previous period, relations, which encompasses China-Portugal, China-EU, and

international relations, remains a pivotal theme of the political narrative in the second

period. Sustained diplomatic engagement is evident from the predominantly positive

sentiments that underscore achievements in this regard, while the minimal number of

negative references corroborates the notion that the overall outlook is optimistic. Specific

attention on China-EU relations—e.g., in 2019, Chinese President Xi said: “It is believed

that the Portuguese side will also continue to play an active role in maintaining the right

direction of China-Europe relations” (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic

of China, 2019a)—further contextualizes and reveals a particular layer of nuance in the

geopolitical dynamics as well as the broader diplomatic landscape.

Development continues to be a theme of focus as it embodies both sides’ aspirations for

mutual growth, and its five main child themes, development strategies, common

development, ocean development, long-term development, and global development,

underscore a commitment to sustainable progress. However, while positive references

outnumber negative ones, the fact that the latter is present, coupled with a significant

number of neutral references suggests thoughtful cautiousness toward long-term

developmental initiatives. In particular, references to global development—for example,

in 2021, Chinese HoS Xi said, “China has always worked to safeguard world peace,

contribute to global development, and preserve international order” (Ministry of Foreign

Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2021)—show the visionary nature of

development-themed narratives.

In terms of exchanges, the political narrative unfolds along high-level

exchanges, friendly exchanges, cultural exchanges, bilateral exchanges, and

personnel exchanges (these were the top five child themes)—a multifaceted

spectrum that shows the richness and depth of the interactions between China

and Portugal. Moreover, these interactions, especially the cultural ones, are

characterizable by positive sentiments. This (and the absence of negative

references) is in line with the overall positive outlook in bilateral interactions,

which is evident via references such as Chinese HoS Xi’s expectations of the

two countries “to expand bilateral exchanges and cooperation in the fields of

economy, trade and culture”, and of Portugal to continue to support the B&RI

and be a well-positioned hub of the initiative in Europe (Ministry of Foreign

Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2018a).

A partnership-based narrative—encompassing comprehensive strategic

partnership, blue partnership, future-oriented partnership, and China-EU

partnership—emerged in this period to show a diversification and evolvement

of collaborations between China and Portugal. For example, in 2018, Chinese

President Xi met with Portuguese President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa and

Prime Minister Antonio Costa. Together they reviewed both sides’ experience

of developing bilateral relations. They also “drew blueprints for future

cooperation, and agreed to intensify high-level exchanges, deepen political

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mutual trust, improve the level of cooperation, consolidate traditional

friendship, and enrich the connotation of comprehensive strategic

partnership” (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China,

2018b). Such is the positive tone that overlays the theme of partnership,

particularly references to strategic partnership.

Economic dimensions come to the forefront through the theme of trade, which

encompasses free trade, two-way trade, multilateral trade, key trading partner, and

international trade. With 24 references, this theme signifies a concerted effort to

strengthen economic ties. Positive sentiments highlighting economic opportunities are

balanced by a few negative and a number of neutral references, reflecting cautiousness

toward both opportunities and challenges in trade. This tone is evident in, for example,

then Head of Government Li’s comment in 2019:

We are willing to work with European Union (EU) countries, including the

Portuguese side, to jointly uphold multilateralism and free trade, strengthen

cooperation under the framework of cooperation between China and the EU

and between China and Portuguese-speaking countries, and further intensify

communication and coordination the United Nations and other multilateral

frameworks to jointly safeguard the world peace, stability and development

(Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2019b).

Finally, trust serves as a foundation for diplomatic engagements. With 20 references, the

emphasis on mutual trust signifies its pivotal role. Positive sentiments underscore the

importance of mutual confidence, while the absence of negative references indicates an

optimistic expectation. Taking Minister of Foreign Affairs Wang’s words as example:

Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Portugal

nearly four decades ago, both sides have always enjoyed mutual respect,

mutual understanding, mutual trust, and mutual support, as well as

respected and accommodated each other’s core interests and major

concerns, becoming a model of mutual learning and win-win cooperation

between China and European countries as well as between the Eastern and

Western civilizations (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2018c).

This analysis of HLPDs in China-Portugal relations during Period 2 (Table 3) illuminates

an intensified commitment and nuanced dynamics. While cooperation and relations

continue to dominate, themes like development, exchanges, partnership, trade, and trust

reveal a complex and evolving tapestry, and the predominantly positive sentiments

underscore an optimistic attitude.

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Table 3. Period 2 (April 2018 to October 2022) China and Portugal’s HLPN Analysis

Themes

Most frequently mentioned child

themes

Total

number of

References

(among 32

Events)

Sentiment

Cooperation

practical cooperation, third-party market

cooperation, bilateral cooperation, maritime

cooperation, and economic cooperation

Relations

bilateral relations, China-Portugal relations,

diplomatic relations, China-EU relations,

and international relations

Development

development strategies, common

development, ocean development, long-

term development, and global development

Exchanges

high-level exchanges, friendly exchanges,

cultural exchanges, bilateral exchanges,

and personnel exchanges

Partnership

comprehensive strategic partnership, blue

partnership, future-oriented partnership,

and China-EU partnership

Trade

free trade, two-way trade, multilateral

trade, key trading partner, and

international trade

Trust

mutual trust

Source: Authors

Using the lengths of CDA, we identify a hidden rationale and several messages that shape

the political discourse. There is a deliberate hidden message that frames the entire

narrative in terms of inclusive and exclusive areas of bilateral interaction. The inclusive

narrative highlights the positive benefits associated with development and remains open

to further advancements. This narrative promotes cooperation and mutual growth,

emphasizing the potential for continued collaboration and progress.

On the other hand, the hidden exclusive narrative signals an unwillingness to expand the

high-level political discourse (HLPD) to other areas of diplomatic engagement. This

reluctance suggests a desire to maintain the current diplomatic status quo, avoiding

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deeper or broader interactions that could lead to significant changes in the existing power

dynamics, also corresponding to the permanent dynamics of the international

environment. By keeping certain areas of engagement off the table, the exclusive

narrative aims to preserve established relationships and prevent potential disruptions,

furthermore preventing possible disruptions resulting from an unstable agenda setting

that could reflect the different economic or political power each State has.

(3) Comparative Discussion

3.1 Economic Cooperation:

In the first period (March 2013 to March 2018), the discourse focused on economics-

related themes like cooperation and market. Strategies for common development and

exploration of various markets, with a particular emphasis on third-party market

cooperation, were consistently highlighted. Notably, Portugal’s strategic geographic

location along the B&RI has rendered it a significant partner for China’s global trade and

investment endeavors. China, recognizing Portugal as an essential gateway to Europe,

endeavors to enhance maritime cooperation, tapping into the nation’s historical maritime

influence.

In the second period (April 2018 to October 2022), the researchers observed a distinct

evolution in the discourse surrounding economic cooperation. Themes like bilateral

cooperation and economic cooperation took center stage, signaling a stronger emphasis

on fostering collaboration across various sectors. Trade in particular was a significant

theme that reflected a broader strategy aimed at global trade partnerships and strong

advocacy for free trade. A pivotal moment during this period was the elevation of China

and Portugal’s collaboration to a comprehensive strategic partnership, underscoring

China’s recognition of Portugal’s growing global importance and its multifaceted role as

a valuable ally across trade, culture, and diplomacy.

In the context of trade, data has shown that Portugal consistently maintained a deficit

with China from 2013 to 2021 (Eurostat, 2023). This trend, despite the occasional

fluctuations, showcases an overall upward trajectory in trade in services between the two

nations. The signing of the B&RI MoU in 2018 was a significant turning point for bilateral

trade in services, highlighting the instrumental role of the B&RI in enhancing economic

ties (Ministry of Commerce People’s Republic of China, 2018; Leandro, 2023).

The B&RI emerged as a transformative opportunity, perceived by both China and

Portugal, to deepen their commercial cooperation. Leveraging their historical ties, both

nations have sought to intensify collaboration across various domains through this

initiative (Leandro, 2023), and the B&RI provides an overarching framework for

investment, trade, and multi-level cooperation, particularly in major infrastructure

projects between them. As the driving force behind the B&RI, China envisions not only

infrastructural development but also a strategic move to bolster its global position and

achieve a sustainable and prosperous society. This initiative has transcended

conventional boundaries, offering mechanisms for global governance on both tangibles

and intangibles, thereby reshaping the landscape of international relations (Leandro &

Duarte, 2020).

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China emphasizes strategically venturing into third-party markets, with Portugal playing

an irreplaceable part in amplifying China’s influence in this domain. Forum Macao notably

emerges as a key platform for collaborations between China and PSCs (the PSCs together

constitute approximately 7% of the global territories above sea level, surpassing China’s

6.3%, and their excellent locations allow them to be promising partners for China). Such

collaborations represent extensive prospects in natural resources and marine industries

within the PSCs. Portugal has astutely recognized the potential of Sino-Portuguese

economic collaboration since the advent of Forum Macao. In turn, Portugal is perceived

not only as an entry point to the European Union but also as a catalyst for triangular

cooperation with the PSCs, a symbiotic relationship that promotes economic cooperation

and strategic partnerships involving China and the PSCs (Leandro, 2023).

3.2 Bilateral Relations and Diplomacy

In the domain of bilateral relations and diplomacy during the first period, the discussions

primarily centered around relations and development. The discourse underscored the

significance of bilateral relations, particularly in the context of the B&RI, which Portugal

has officially endorsed. Portugal’s proactive engagement demonstrated its willingness to

align with China’s long-term development vision and foster stronger diplomatic ties. The

emphasis on development strategies was indicative of a shared aspiration for sustainable

growth and mutual economic prosperity.

In the second period, the discourse broadened to include diplomatic relations, China-EU

relations, and international relations. This widening scope indicated China’s increasing

prominence in global affairs, which aligned with its rise as a major global actor. Notably,

trust emerged as a significant theme to show that both nations recognize the importance

of nurturing stronger ties through promoting transparency and cooperation in various

domains.

Noteworthy events marked significant milestones in Sino-Portuguese relations. In 2018,

a joint statement was issued to strengthen their comprehensive strategic partnership and

formalize their commitment. The signing of a B&RI MoU in the same year further solidified

their collaboration. In July 2021, a significant diplomatic exchange took place, as China

and Portugal held their first round of strategic dialogue at the foreign minister level. This

dialogue aimed to enhance cooperation in several critical fields such as scientific and

technological innovation, materials, marine, language, and cultural heritage. Portugal’s

distinction as the second EU country to establish foreign minister–level strategic dialogue

with China underscores the depth of their engagement (Leandro, 2023).

The relationship between China and Portugal has been marked by other milestones,

including China’s support for Antonio Guterres’s candidacy for the United Nations’

Secretary-General, first in 2016 and again in 2021 (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the

People’s Republic of China 2016d; Xinhuanet, 2021). These milestones highlight the

collaborative and supportive dynamics that characterize their interactions, further

reinforcing their relationship.

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3.3 Cultural Exchanges and Soft Power

Cultural exchanges and soft power have been a mainstay of the discourse between China

and Portugal throughout the two periods of analysis. The discourse initially centered

around exchanges, which showed the two sides’ keen interest in enhancing cultural

understanding and exploring potential markets. In particular, cultural exchanges signify

the two nations’ mutual desire for growth and cooperation.

An essential aspect of these cultural exchanges was personnel exchanges. Over the

years, both China and Portugal have taken strategic steps to strengthen educational ties

and facilitate academic interactions (Leandro, 2023). For instance, in 2013, China and

Portugal signed a protocol aimed at simplifying the mutual recognition of academic

diplomas and encouraging Chinese students to study abroad. Subsequently, in 2018, a

cooperation memorandum devoted key points to the education sector, indicating their

commitment to academic collaborations. Moreover, the establishment of “language

campuses” such as Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms contributes to

promoting China’s cultural transmission in Portugal. These establishments have actively

engaged with academic institutions, local schools, and education centers to foster a

deeper understanding of the Chinese language and culture to residents (China Daily,

2019; DIG Mandarim, 2023; França, 2021). Exchange of cultural knowledge was further

enriched through programs in language and international studies offered in Portuguese

academic institutions as well as pilot programs of the Chinese language implemented in

public and private secondary schools.

The extensive cultural exchanges and strategic educational initiatives underscore the

concerted effort by both China and Portugal to deepen understanding and appreciation

of each other’s cultures, as well as to strengthen their relationship on multiple fronts.

These stand as a testament to the enduring nature of their engagement and the value

they place on intercultural conversation and cooperation.

4. Conclusion (highlights and future prospects）

In conclusion, this analysis to decode the political discourse between China and Portugal

has elucidated a nuanced narrative. Economic cooperation forms the solid foundation of

their engagement, reflecting a strategic alignment of their interests on the global stage.

Bilateral relations and diplomacy serve as the conduit for realizing these cooperative

goals, emphasizing the importance of direct dialogue and collaboration. Embedded within

this discourse is a prominent focus on cultural exchanges and soft power dynamics,

reflecting their commitment to mutual understanding and influence, thereby illustrating

the multifaceted nature of their evolving relationship.

During the two terms in office of Chinese President Xi, from March 2013 to October 2022,

in examining China and Portugal’s high-level political discourse through the lens of

economic cooperation by NVivo 14 (Table 3), bilateral relations and diplomacy, and

cultural exchanges and soft power. The vivid narratives emerge, revealing the nuanced

dynamics and aspirations that shape their engagement.

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Table 4. Analysis on China and Portugal’s HLPN from March 2013 to October 2022

Themes

Most frequently mentioned child

themes

Total number

of References

(among 32

HLPCEs)

Sentiment

Cooperation

practical cooperation, third-party market

cooperation, maritime cooperation,

multilateral cooperation

137

104

Relations

bilateral relations, China-Portugal

relations, Portugal-China Relations, China-

EU relations, cooperative relations

Development

development strategies, common

development, sustainable development,

ocean development, global development

Exchanges

cultural exchanges, high-level exchanges,

bilateral exchanges, political exchanges,

nongovernmental exchanges

Partnership

comprehensive strategic partnership, blue

partnership, future-oriented partnership,

China-EU partnership

Trade

free trade, two-way trade, global trade,

bilateral trade, multilateral trade

Source: Authors

Economic cooperation stands at the forefront, as indicated by the prominence of the

theme cooperation in the discourse, mentioned a staggering 137 times. This reveals a

strategic orientation towards fostering practical and fruitful collaborations. The examples

of practical cooperation, third-party market cooperation, and maritime cooperation

highlight the diverse avenues for economic collaboration. These initiatives suggest a

concerted effort to leverage each other’s strengths in global trade and development.

Trade, the sixth most frequently mentioned theme, further underscores their

commitment to fostering economic interdependence and facilitating global trade

partnerships. It suggests a concerted effort to align their goals, leveraging each other’s

strengths in trade and development. Notably, the phrase “multilateral cooperation”

suggests a broader ambition to extend economic engagements beyond bilateral relations,

encompassing a global network of partnerships.

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In parallel, the discourse underscores the paramount importance of bilateral relations

and diplomacy, mentioned 85 times. The frequent use of phrases such as “bilateral

relations,” “China-Portugal relations,” and “Portugal-China relations” emphasizes the

significance of direct communication and cooperation between the two nations. This

discourse emphasizes the essential role of diplomatic interactions in forging stronger

bonds and facilitating agreements that promote shared interests. Besides, “cooperative

relations” reinforces the intent to cultivate a mutually beneficial relationship, where

collaboration and understanding take center stage, further underlining the importance of

diplomacy in advancing their shared goals. Embedded within this discussion of

cooperative relations is the recurring theme of partnership (30 times), specifically within

the context of bilateral relations and diplomacy. This highlights the intent to elevate the

relationship to a strategic and comprehensive level. The term “comprehensive strategic

partnership” underscores Sino-Luso’s close and healthy relationship, reflecting a

commitment to deep engagement in various domains such as trade, economics, culture,

and politics, promoting a multifaceted alliance for mutual growth and prosperity.

Cultural exchanges and soft power also emerge as significant aspects of the discourse,

with the theme exchanges appearing 47 times. This reflects a pronounced focus on

fostering cultural understanding and political dialogue. Phrases like “cultural exchanges,”

“high-level exchanges,” and “political exchanges” signify a conscious effort to promote

mutual understanding and cooperation through cultural interaction.

China and Portugal share a dynamic relationship with a strong focus on economic

cooperation, a fact that has gained increasing importance as China’s global influence

continues to expand. The engagement between these nations extends beyond mere

economic transactions, encompassing strategic partnerships and collaborative ventures.

In recent years, both countries have actively pursued economic agreements and

partnerships, aiming to bolster trade and investment ties. China’s ambitious B&RI has

piqued Portugal’s interest due to its strategic geographical position, presenting an

opportunity for enhanced trade and connectivity. Portugal, with its well-established port

infrastructure, particularly in Lisbon and Sines, emerges as a favorable partner who is

aligned with China’s maritime trade objectives (Wise, 2020).

Portugal, as an EU member, views economic engagement with China as advantageous

for capitalizing on China’s growing consumer market and investment potential. The two

nations have explored cooperative ventures in sectors such as renewable energy,

technology, and finance, seeking avenues for mutual growth. Portugal’s stability and

economic progress position it as an attractive investment destination for China that is

aligned with China’s strategy of diversifying its global economic engagements (Embassy

of the People’s Republic of China in Barbados, 2021).

However, the economic collaboration prompts considerations regarding potential

geopolitical influence and economic interdependence. Portugal, in line with other EU

nations, carefully manages this aspect to ensure that economic partnerships with China

adhere to EU regulations and do not compromise national and regional interests. Striking

a balance between economic benefits and the EU’s concerns remains a challenge facing

China-Portugal relations (Faget, 2019).

In addition, the political discourse is shaped by both inclusive and exclusive narratives.

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The inclusive narrative fosters development and openness to new opportunities, while

the exclusive narrative seeks to maintain the status quo by limiting the scope of high-

level political discourse. This dual approach reflects a strategic balancing act, where the

benefits of cooperation are promoted, but the boundaries of engagement are carefully

managed to avoid unsettling the existing diplomatic framework.

Looking ahead, it is anticipated that China and Portugal will continue to nurture economic

ties while addressing concerns related to fairness, sustainability, and alignment with

international norms. Maintaining stability between economic cooperation and preserving

national and regional interests will be vital as they navigate the evolving dynamics of

their relationship within the intricate global landscape (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the

People’s Republic of China, 2022).

Similarly, the relationship between China and Brazil presents a fascinating study of how

HLPD shapes bilateral cooperation, which will be explored in future research.

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