OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL15, N.º 2, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Brazil-China relations:

The rise of modern International Order

December 2024

248

BRAZILIAN FOREIGN POLICY AND THE QUEST TO PROMOTE PORTUGUESE:

BUILDING BRIDGES THROUGH MACAU

JOÃO SIMÕES

joaosimoes@cityu.edu.mo

Assistant Professor at City University of Macau (China). He holds a Ph.D. in Portuguese-speaking

Countries Studies from the same university, a Master's degree in Chinese Studies from the

University of Aveiro, Portugal, where he studied language policy and planning of the People's

Republic of China, and a Bachelor's degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the

University of Lisbon, Portugal. Prior to his current role, he taught at Xi'an International Studies

University, China. His current research focuses on Lusophony and the interactions between

Portuguese-speaking countries and China, as well as energy geopolitics.

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1437-5527.

DANIEL VERAS

daniar73@gmail.com

Professor of "China: Contacts, Culture, Identities, and Contrasts" in the Specialization/Graduate

Studies in Contemporary China program at PUC Minas (Brazil). He is also the vice-coordinator of

ALADAA Brasil (Asociación Latinoamericana de Estudios de Asia y África, Brazil chapter).

Previously, he was a researcher at the Center for Sino-Brazilian Studies at Fundação Getulio

Vargas, Brazil. He holds a Doctorate in Social Sciences, a Master's in Communication and

Semiotics, and a B.A. in Social Sciences, all from the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo

(PUC-SP). Daniel lived in China for ten years, where he studied Chinese at Nanjing University and

worked in academic Sino-Brazilian cooperation involving the Confucius Institute of São Paulo, the

Chinese Government (Han Ban), and São Paulo State University (Unesp). He taught Portuguese

language, International Relations, and Brazilian culture at Hubei University in Wuhan. From 2015

to 2016, he worked as a researcher at the Santo Andre City Hall. From 2010 to 2018, he lectured

in the annual video conference “Brazilian Society and Economics” for the Master's in Business

Engineering program at Institut Supérieur d'Ingénierie d'Affaires (ISIALM) in Le Mans, France.

Since 2016, he has been a guest professor of Sociology and Philosophy for students from the

University of Alberta (Canada), Syracuse University, the University of Missouri, the University of

Illinois, North Carolina State University, and Pine Manor College (USA) as part of the Summer

Program, CUSSA, at Shanghai Normal University and Beijing University of Technology, China. His

interests include globalization, migration, diasporas, intercultural communication, arts, identities,

contrasts, and culture. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4367-6807.

Abstract

This article explores Brazil’s role in the global promotion of the Portuguese language. Through

the lens of Cooper’s framework on the international promotion of languages, the study

investigates the intertwined political, economic and cultural motivations behind language

promotion initiatives. It analyzes Brazil’s unilateral actions as well as engagement with the

institutional framework of the Institute for the Promotion of Portuguese Language (IILP) within

the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP). Drawing upon a review of scholarly

works, official reports and policy documents, the paper shows that Brazil’s foreign policy has

actively promoted the Portuguese language in certain geographies, but has yet to prioritize

China, despite significant bilateral relations between China and Brazil. Furthermore, the article

highlights the role of Macau as a valuable bridge between China and the Portuguese-speaking

countries, which has been increasingly recognized by the People’s Republic of China. The

conclusion underscores the need for Brazil to effectively leverage Macau’s strategic position

to capitalize on these opportunities.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

249

Keywords

Brazil, China, Portuguese language, language policy and planning, cultural diplomacy, Macau.

Resumo

Este artigo analisa o papel do Brasil na promoção global da língua portuguesa. Utilizando o

quadro teórico de Cooper sobre a promoção internacional de línguas, o estudo investiga as

motivações políticas, económicas e culturais que estão interligadas nas iniciativas de

promoção linguística. O presente artigo analisa ainda as acções unilaterais do Brasil, bem

como o seu envolvimento com o Instituto Internacional da Língua Portuguesa (IILP) dentro

da Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (CPLP). Com base numa revisão de literatura

científica, relatórios e outros documentos oficiais, este artigo revela que a política externa do

Brasil tem promovido activamente a língua portuguesa em determinadas geografias, mas não

tem dado prioridade à China, apesar da importância da relação bilateral entre os dois países.

Além disso, o presente artigo destaca o papel de Macau como ponte entre a China e os países

de língua portuguesa, que tem sido cada vez mais reconhecido pela República Popular da

China. A conclusão sublinha a necessidade de o Brasil aproveitar efectivamente a posição

estratégica de Macau para capitalizar estas oportunidades.

Palavras-chave

Brasil, China, Língua Portuguesa, política e planeamento linguístico, diplomacia cultural,

Macau.

How to cite this article

Simões, João & Veras, Daniel (2024). Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote

Portuguese: Building Bridges Through Macau. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. VOL

15 N.º 2, TD1 – Temathic Dossier – “Brazil - China Relations: The Rise Of Modern International

Order”. December 2024, pp. 248-273. https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0324.12.

Article received on 23 August 2024 and accepted for publication on 4 October 2024.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

250

BRAZILIAN FOREIGN POLICY AND THE QUEST TO PROMOTE

PORTUGUESE: BUILDING BRIDGES THROUGH MACAU

JOÃO SIMÕES

DANIEL VERAS

1. Introduction

The promotion of a language abroad is closely linked to language policy and planning

frameworks. Several important theoretical models and empirical studies provide insights

into this link. Einar Haugen’s influential language planning model describes four main

components: selection, codifying, implementation and elaboration (Haugen, 1983).

Selecting the variety of the target language, codifying its standards, implementing

curricula and developing its use in new areas are crucial to expanding a language’s global

reach. Based on this, Robert Cooper’s work frames language planning as a socio-political

process that aims to influence the function, structure and acquisition of linguistic varieties

(Cooper, 1989). This perspective highlights how the promotion of languages abroad is

often driven by political, economic and cultural interests, and requires coordinated policy

initiatives. From this view, the promotion of a language abroad is not a neutral act, but

can be a means of exercising soft power and furthering political, economic and cultural

agendas. Governments, for instance, may support the global spread of their national

language to enhance diplomatic influence, facilitate trade or propagate cultural values.

Empirical case studies such as those compiled by Kaplan and Baldauf (1997) demonstrate

how national and regional language planning efforts have focused on expanding the use

of a language internationally through education, the media and diplomatic channels. For

example, the promotion of Mandarin, Arabic and Spanish as global languages implies

extensive policy planning and implementation.

The promotion of a language abroad is closely linked to the concepts of cultural diplomacy

and soft power. Since the 1990s, scholars have explored these links in their research. For

example, Joseph Nye’s seminal work on soft power highlights how the attraction and

appeal of a country’s policies, culture and values can be a powerful tool for global

influence (Nye, 2004). The promotion of a language abroad can be seen as a key strategy

of influence, as it allows a country to project its cultural and linguistic capital globally.

Similarly, the concept of cultural diplomacy emphasizes the use of cultural exchange and

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

251

linguistic promotion as a means of promoting mutual understanding and building

relations between countries (Cummings, 2003). Language can be a powerful tool for

cultural diplomacy, as it enables intercultural communication, facilitates the

dissemination of artistic and intellectual works, and creates opportunities for immersion

and cultural exchange (Gienow-Hecht & Donfried, 2010). Several studies have collectively

explored the intersection of foreign policy and language promotion across various

countries, highlighting how nations use language as a tool of soft power to extend their

cultural and political influence abroad (Gil, 2009; Diniz, 2012; Yudina & Seliverstova,

2020; Noack, 2022). In particular, Gil (2009) and Paradise (2009) examined China’s

initiatives to promote Chinese language globally as a means to increase its soft power

and achieve foreign policy goals, while Mkhoyan (2016) and Yudina and Seliverstova

(2020) discussed how various countries employ language policy and planning as an

element of their soft power strategies.

In the context of Brazil, the world’s largest Lusophone country, the promotion of

Portuguese is not only a matter of linguistic expansion but also a strategic endeavor that

aligns with the country’s cultural diplomacy and soft power initiatives. Against this

backdrop, this article examines Brazil’s pivotal role in the promotion of the Portuguese

language worldwide. The Portuguese language holds significant global importance, with

a very promising growth projection in the coming decades. As the most populous

Portuguese-speaking country, with more than 200 million speakers, Brazil occupies a

unique position in driving the worldwide spread and influence of the Portuguese language.

Some of the key factors highlighting its worldwide relevance include (Camões, 2022;

Statista, 2024; Eberhard et al., 2024):

1. Number of speakers: Currently, Portuguese is spoken by over 264 million people on

five continents. It is estimated that this number will reach almost 400 million by 2050

and exceed 500 million by 2100, with the African continent responsible for the largest

increase. Portuguese is the seventh most spoken language in the world as a native

language, and the eighth most spoken by total number of speakers.

2. As the most spoken language in the Southern Hemisphere: Portuguese has a strong

presence in regions in South America and Africa.

3. Seventh most used language among all internet users and in terms of percentage of

the top ten million websites on the world wide web

4. Adoption as the official language in multiple international organizations: Portuguese

is an official and/or working language in 32 important international organizations,

including the European Union, Community of Portuguese speaking countries, African

Union, Organização dos Estados Americanos, Southern Common Market (Mercosul),

Comunidade de Estados Latino-Americanos e Caribenhos, Comissão Económica para

a América Latina e Caraíbas, Organização dos Estados Ibero-Americanos para a

Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura, Economic Community of West African States, World

Health Organization, Economic Community of Central African States, Community of

Sahel–Saharan States, Associação Latino-Americana de Integração, Zone of Peace

and Cooperation of the South Atlantic, Southern African Development Community,

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

252

Union of South American Nations, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa,

UNESCO.

5. The fact that, while English remains the dominant language, Portuguese has managed

to create its own spaces for communication and scientific publication. Brazil has

developed the Scientific Electronic Library Online, which sees significant participation

from Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking countries. Additionally, there are a number

of academic repositories and open-access online knowledge platforms, particularly in

Portugal and Brazil.

Hence, the Portuguese language demonstrates a growing importance in the world

scenario, in demographic, economic and political terms. Its role is likely to be further

strengthened, especially considering the projected demographic development of

Portuguese-speaking African countries. The perception of advantage of Portuguese as a

common language stem from the high number of Portuguese speakers, the Brazilian

demography, the language’s dispersion over four continents and the consequent presence

in various regional political and economic organizations such as those identified above.

In addition, the influence of the Portuguese language can expand through demographic

growth and digital technology in a knowledge-based economy and, according to authors

such as Reto et al. (2012), Portuguese can evolve from an international language in a

linguistic bloc to a language of functional communication across the globe.

This article examines Brazil’s multifaceted role in the global promotion of the Portuguese

language. First, we analyze Brazil’s unilateral efforts in advancing the usage and reach

of the Portuguese language. Secondly, the paper explores Brazil’s engagement with

multilateral frameworks such as the Institute for the Portuguese Language (Instituto

Internacional da Língua Portuguesa, IILP) and the Community of Portuguese Speaking

Countries (Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa, CPLP) in coordinating language

promotion initiatives. Thirdly, the article discusses Brazil’s efforts to promote the

Portuguese language in China. Finally, the paper concludes with an assessment of Brazil’s

overall impact and strategic positioning as the world’s largest Lusophone country in the

global promotion of the Portuguese language, emphasizing the need to prioritize China

and the specific role Macau could play in this effort. The methodological approach

employed in this study consists of a literature review and an analysis of official

government documents and institutional reports, synthesizing existing theoretical

frameworks and empirical findings from previous research along with insights into the

practical implementation of Brazil's policies.

2. Brazil’s unilateral efforts in promoting the Portuguese language

Brazilian foreign policy actively promotes the Portuguese language internationally,

particularly in Latin America and Africa, through various initiatives. This includes the

establishment of Brazilian Cultural Centers (CCB) and lectureships (Diniz, 2012;

Carvalho, 2016), the implementation of language proficiency exams such as Celpe-Bras

(Diniz, 2012) and participation in the CPLP (Miyamoto, 2009; Vieira de Jesus, 2012). The

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

253

lectureship program plays a crucial role in teaching the Portuguese language and

Brazilian culture abroad (Oliveira, 2020).

Brazil’s approach to language promotion overseas has been influenced by geopolitical

interests and national security concerns (Rajagopalan, 2008). The country’s language

promotion efforts are closely tied to its foreign policy goals, such as to gain support for

reforming the UN Security Council (Beckhauser, 2018). Brazil’s rise as a regional power

has also prompted increased interest in Portuguese language education, including in

military contexts; in particular, the United States Department of Defense has

acknowledged the strategic significance of Brazil and the vital need for its military leaders

to be involved in South American operations to receive training in the Portuguese

language and culture (Waldvogel & Souza, 2018).

The promotion of Portuguese is seen by some scholars as a tool for cultural diplomacy

and for improving Brazil’s global image (Beckhauser, 2018; Mendes, 2019), with a focus

on transnational cooperation and development actions. Brazil’s efforts have been aimed

at strengthening its diplomatic relations, expanding its influence in developing countries,

and increasing its voice in multilateral forums (Vieira de Jesus, 2012). The country’s

approach to language promotion is often framed within South-South cooperation and

development aid, especially in Portuguese-speaking African countries. Ullrich and Carrion

(2014, pp. 157–158) argue that Brazil’s government support programs are being directed

towards vocational training, adult literacy and public policies, in alignment with the

country’s economic objectives. They are leveraging South-South cooperation to build

human capital and develop skilled workforces in potential areas of interest for the

expansion of Brazilian companies. However, some scholars argue that more efficient

language policies are needed to realize the full potential of Brazilian Portuguese as an

international language (Bagno & Carvalho, 2015).

Silva (2011) and Mendes (2019) recall that the policy of promoting the Portuguese

language in Brazil began in 1938 with the establishment of the Intellectual Cooperation

Division within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1940, the Uruguayan-Brazilian Cultural

Institute was established in Montevideo, the first Brazilian studies center and the starting

point for the establishment of the Brazilian Education Network Abroad (RBEx). The RBEx

is composed of Brazilian Cultural Centers, bilateral cultural institutes (IC), and

lectureships, and is under the authority of the Division for the Promotion of the

Portuguese Language (DPLP) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 2005, the Brazilian

government decided to create the Machado de Assis Institute (IMA), in cooperation with

the Camões Institute, a Portuguese public institution devoted to the worldwide promotion

of the Portuguese language and culture. The objective of this Machado de Assis Institute

would be to disseminate Brazilian culture and the Portuguese language outside the

Lusophone space. However, as Mendes (2019) suggests, this project did not move

forward due to internal disagreements.

Brazilian foreign policy has been marked by continuous efforts to increase its influence

on the international stage. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, Brazilian

diplomacy has worked to expand its room for maneuver, including seeking to become a

permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. From the early 1990s to the

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

254

present, Brazil has been taking a more active role in the international order, “trying to

consolidate its perceived role as a constructive multilateral player” (Garcia & Coelho,

2018).

At the regional level, Brazilian foreign policy towards Latin America has consistently been

guided by the integration, aid and cooperation of its members. This is reflected in the

multiple regional associations created in recent decades, united by common purposes of

economic cooperation represented by the Southern Common Market (Mercosur), the

Union of South American Nations, the Community of Latin American and Caribbean

States, the Latin American Integration Association, the Amazon Cooperation Treaty

Organization, among others. In this broader context of regional cooperation, Brazil has

played a significant role in promoting the use of the Portuguese language across Latin

America (Mendes da Silva, 2021).

Brazil’s foreign policy during the Lula government consolidated the political concept of

the “Global South”, seeking to strengthen relations with peripheral countries and increase

Brazil’s protagonism on the international stage, by assuming a posture of a donor country

in the field of international development cooperation, in particular in education. To this

end, the strategy was to get closer to the neighboring South American countries and the

Portuguese-Speaking African Countries. This approach aimed not only to expand Brazil's

geopolitical influence but also to position the country as a significant player in

international aid and cooperation (Ullrich and Carrion, 2014, p. 157). In this context,

cultural diplomacy became a crucial tool for reinforcing Brazil's identity and influence,

linking its foreign policy objectives to its cultural initiatives.

The Guimarães Rosa Institute (Instituto Guimarães Rosa, IGR) is the unit within the

Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministério das Relações Exteriores, MRE) responsible for

Brazil’s cultural diplomacy. The concept of cultural diplomacy employed by the Brazilian

government refers to the promotion of national interests in the field of foreign policy

through actions in the areas of culture, education and the Portuguese language abroad.

The IGR is comprised of four main divisions (MRE, n.d.):

− Division of Actions for the Promotion of Brazilian Culture

− Division of Multilateral Cultural Affairs

− Division of Educational Cooperation

− Division of the Portuguese Language

These divisions work together to develop and implement Brazil’s cultural diplomacy

initiatives, with the overarching goal of promoting the language, culture and education

on the international stage. The role of the IGR in promoting the Portuguese language can

be summarized as follows (MRE, n.d.):

− To propose guidelines for Brazil’s foreign policy in the areas of cultural relations,

education and the promotion of Portuguese abroad, in coordination with other

government agencies.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

255

− To promote Brazilian culture abroad to internationalize Brazil’s creative economy.

− To negotiate and oversee the implementation of international agreements in the areas

of cultural and educational relations.

− To coordinate Brazil’s participation in international organizations and meetings related

to multilateral cultural, educational, and Portuguese language promotion issues.

− To promote and oversee international educational cooperation initiatives.

− To manage the network of Guimarães Rosa Institutes abroad, which includes 24

physical units, six Brazilian Studies Centers at Brazilian embassies, and around 40

Portuguese language lectureships.

− To offer Portuguese language courses for expatriate Brazilian communities and

foreigners, as well as the CELPE-Bras proficiency exam.

− To organize courses and activities related to Brazilian dance, music, cuisine and visual

art to promote Brazilian culture.

− To administer the Leitorado Guimarães Rosa program, which places Brazilian language

and literature professors as lecturers at foreign universities to promote the Portuguese

language and Brazilian culture.

Over the past 70+ years, around 400 Brazilian lecturers have participated in the

Leitorado program, and there are currently almost 40 Guimarães Rosa lecturers

distributed across 30 countries in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Europe.

In addition to the official measures presented earlier for the promotion and dissemination

of Portuguese, Vianna da Cruz (2013, pp. 25–26) draws attention to other actions taken

by the Brazilian government. For example, the inauguration in 2006 of the Museum of

the Portuguese Language in São Paulo, with the objective of preserving and showcasing

the diversity of the language, celebrating it as a foundational element of culture. Another

Brazilian strategy for the promotion and dissemination of the Portuguese language,

according to the same author, was the creation of a university for the CPLP countries, the

University of International Integration of Afro-Brazilian Lusophony, created in 2008 as a

proposal by the government of Lula da Silva to increase Brazil’s union with other

Lusophone countries; this essentially went beyond just the language aspect to

encompass also the social, economic and geopolitical factors. Prior to this, the Federal

University of Latin American Integration had been created in 2007 in Foz do Iguaçu, with

a mission to contribute to Latin American integration, through educational, scientific and

cultural exchanges.

Despite the extensiveness and significance of the network under the responsibility of the

Brazilian government for the promotion of language and culture, as the centers and

lectureships are present on five continents, Mendes (2019, p. 45) argues that this

network has very little presence in Asia, a strategic continent for the current global

geopolitical landscape. Consequently, according to this author, countries like China, India

and Russia should be more strongly benefited by the interests of promoting the language

and culture as part of Brazilian diplomacy. Along the same line of reasoning, Beckhauser

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

256

(2018) explains that Brazilian cultural diplomacy has prioritized the teaching of the

Portuguese language in countries with low representation in the international political

and economic arenas, instead of expanding it to the new emerging powers, such as

China, India and Russia. According to the author, Brazil has been betting on the creation

of Brazilian Cultural Centers (CCBs) in Latin America and Africa, as Brazilian diplomacy

seeks to publicize its image and win votes from developing countries for a future reform

of the UN Security Council. This strategy reflects the country’s attempt to strengthen its

presence and influence in regions considered priorities for its international aspirations.

3. Brazil’s engagement with IILP and the CPLP framework

The Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP) was conceived as a forum to

promote cooperation between Portuguese-speaking countries, a legacy of their colonial

and cultural historical ties. This community represents an attempt to unite diverse

countries on different continents—Africa, South America, Europe and Asia—under a

common vision of development, democracy and international cooperation. The idea of

creating the CPLP was first mentioned in 1983 by Jaime Gama, Portugal’s Minister of

Foreign Affairs, during a visit to Cabo Verde. The proposal included rotating summits,

annual ministerial meetings and frequent political consultations, thus strengthening

dialogue and cooperation between Portuguese-speaking countries. The project gained

decisive momentum in the 1990s, thanks to the work of José Aparecido de Oliveira, then

Ambassador of Brazil in Lisbon, culminating in the first official meeting of the leaders of

these countries in São Luís do Maranhão, Brazil, in 1989. At this meeting, it was decided

to create the International Institute of the Portuguese Language (IILP), which focused

on the promotion and dissemination of the language. In 1996, the CPLP was formally

established in Lisbon, with the signing of its constitutive documents, which established

the operational bases and objectives of the community. Since then, Timor-Leste has

joined the CPLP (in 2002) after its independence, and Equatorial Guinea was admitted as

a member in 2014 (CPLP, n.d.).

The CPLP defined in its statutes the materialization of projects aiming at promoting the

Portuguese language as one of its main objectives. In order to pursue its objectives, the

CPLP has adopted, through the IILP, several measures that reveal the language policy of

the organization, insofar as it seeks to establish the major guidelines that embody a set

of strategic options regarding the relations between the Portuguese language and social

life (CPLP, 2021, p. 2).

The global strategies for the dissemination of Portuguese are reflected in the Action Plans

of Brasília (PAB, 2010), Lisbon (PALis, 2013), Dili (PADíli, 2016) and Praia (PAP, 2021),

which together provide institutional support and inform policy on the promotion and

dissemination of the language. These documents highlight the language's potential as a

global, pluricontinental and pluricentric language, well-suited for education, culture, the

creative economy, scientific collaboration, and international organizations where it serves

as an official and working language. These references to the Portuguese language reveal

the strategic thinking of the CPLP regarding the social uses associated with its language

in a perspective of consolidation and conquest of new domains of linguistic uses. The

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

257

conclusions on the assessment of the implementation of the PAB (2010) and the PALis

(2013), presented at PADíli (2016), state that the main strategic lines inscribed in the

thematic axes registered different paces in their implementation, pointing to bigger

strides in, for example, the diffusion of the teaching of the Portuguese language in the

CPLP space and among the diasporas, but slower progress in the adoption of Portuguese

in international organizations and its promotion within civil societies (CPLP, 2021, pp. 3–

4).

Miyamoto (2009) argues that Brazil’s engagement in the CPLP can be seen from two

perspectives: on the one hand, Brazil is visible as it uses the CPLP to project its own

interests abroad, i.e., the instrumentalization of the CPLP as part of Brazilian foreign

policy to maximize the use of all existing possible resources; on the other hand, it can

also be inferred that, despite the pragmatism of its foreign policy, Brazil also thinks in

terms of joint action within the CPLP to serve “global interests that would impossible to

obtain individually”.

In an interview conducted by Barão (2023) with diplomat Lilian Pinho, First Secretary

and Head of the Portuguese Language Division (DLP) of the Guimarães Rosa Institute,

the Brazilian government agency focused on cultural and educational diplomacy,

discussing the working principles of Brazilian foreign policy in the promotion and

dissemination of Portuguese, as well as the development expectations of the IILP. Pinho

begins by highlighting the importance of Brazilian foreign policy’s recent reprioritization

of focus onto culture and relations with African countries, with the recreation of the

Ministry of Culture being an important step towards strengthening inter-ministerial work,

while also exposing the need to reinstall the National Commission of Brazil in the IILP,

which had been affected under the Jair Bolsonaro administration.

Regarding the working principles that guide Brazil’s performance in the promotion of the

Portuguese language and its projection within the IILP/CPLP, Pinho stressed the

importance of networking for Brazilian language policy and its international projection,

seeking collaboration with other government agencies, civil society institutions,

universities, specialists and academics. In this sense, she marked the 70th anniversary

of the Brazilian Lectureship Program—now the Guimarães Rosa Lectureship—which funds

Brazilian lecturers to work in foreign higher education institutions in teaching and

promoting the Portuguese language, as well as Brazilian literature and culture. In 2023,

at the proposal of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the symposium that connects Brazilian

lecturers stationed in different parts of the world was brought under the scope of the

CPLP, in order to give visibility to a project that had been ongoing by Brazil and that

contributes to the IILP's mandate. According to Pinho, with this move from Brazil, the

expectation is to contribute to the improvement of the shared and transnational

management of the Portuguese language, which is one of the foundations for the

performance of the IILP/CPLP (Barão, 2023).

Finally, Pinho concludes that in addition to the Portuguese language being a language of

contact and collaboration between countries marked by colonial history, its adoption in

international contexts can also be a form of resistance to the predominance of English

and French in diplomacy and multilateral politics. However, Pinho draws attention to the

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

258

fact that it is necessary to reflect on the development of the IILP and CPLP, and this

discussion needs to involve not only decision-makers, but also the active involvement of

civil societies (Barão, 2023).

As we have seen above, authors such as Beckhauser (2018) and Mendes (2019) argue

that the Brazilian government has not prioritized the teaching of the Portuguese language

in new emerging powers, including China. Other authors, such as Pestana (2019) and

Tang (2020), highlight the growing demand for Portuguese in China, driven by the

country’s economic relations and the Belt and Road Initiative. In the next section, we will

look at Brazil’s initiatives to expand the Portuguese language learning in China.

4. Brazil’s efforts to promote the Portuguese language in China

This section provides an overview of the historical developments surrounding the

promotion of the Portuguese language in China. According to Jatobá (2020), since 1949,

the teaching of foreign languages in China has oscillated between periods of openness

and restriction. Following the Chinese Revolution, the nation required time to reorganize

its society, and it was not until 1956 that Putonghua, the modern standard form of

Mandarin Chinese, was established as the official language of the People’s Republic of

China (Jatobá, 2020). A significant milestone occurred in 1960, when higher education

institutions in China began offering Portuguese language courses, driven by the growing

demand for qualified professionals.

Zhang et al. (2020) categorize the history of Portuguese language instruction in China

into four distinct periods: 1) 1960-1966; 2) 1966-1977; 3) 1978-1999; and 4) 2000

onward. This classification considers the social transformations that characterized each

period.

The 1960s were marked by global turmoil, as highlighted by Li (2012). Events such as

the Caribbean missile crisis, ideological rifts between China and the USSR, the Vietnam

War, and imperialism in Africa contributed to widespread disorder. In response to these

challenges, the People’s Republic of China was compelled to recalibrate its foreign policy.

It was during this tumultuous period that Portuguese language courses were first

introduced in Beijing’s higher education institutions, which later evolved into universities.

The second period identified by Zhang et al. (2020) spans from 1966 to 1977. The first

formal Portuguese language course in mainland China was established in 1960, at the

university presently known as the Communication University of China. The goal was to

meet the need of training translators. As Chinese relations with the USSR soured in the

1960s, Soviet translators departed from China, which urged China to train its own

translators. In order to meet this need, Beijing International Studies University (BISU)

also inaugurated its Portuguese course in the early 1960s. The Cultural Revolution (1966–

1976) brought about the suspension of admissions in universities and of the gaokao

(college entrance examination test), therefore creating an educational gap, as exposed

by Professor Victoria Almeida from the Shanghai International Studies University - SISU

(Radar China, 2022). As university activities resumed, SISU, for example, opened its

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

259

Portuguese course in 1977, with ten students (the same university had opened a mini-

Portuguese course back in 1973 but with only three students) (Wang, 2001).

As Wang (2001) points out, that first Portuguese course offered back in the early 1960s

had only 18 students. In the same year, the Institute of Foreign Languages in Beijing

(present day Beijing Foreign Studies University, BFSU) opened a two-and-a-half-year

course, with ten students all selected among Russian language interpreters. As years

went by, the city of Guangzhou also started Portuguese courses, and Nanjing University

eventually followed suit. Between 1960 and 2001, more than 400 students majored in

Portuguese language and culture in Chinese universities. Yet according to Wang (2001),

the first teachers of Portuguese language in China were Brazilian, both in Beijing and

Shanghai. Then the first teachers from Portugal came via non-state channels, and, with

time, they would outnumber the Brazilians. Due to the China-Portugal-Macau protocols,

by the 2000s, as Wang (2001) would affirm, all lecturers in Chinese universities would

be from Portugal, sent by the Camões Institute and Instituto Português do Oriente.

Initially, Chinese and Portuguese lecturers would have complementary functions, with the

former focusing on grammar and the latter on conversation and culture.

As Li (2012) points out, despite the challenges posed by the Cultural Revolution,

institutions that evolved into the present-day Communication University of China and

Beijing Language and Culture University (BLCU) graduated approximately one hundred

students proficient in Portuguese under difficult conditions and with outdated

methodologies. During the same period, Macau trained nearly forty professionals. Li

(2012) notes that while the number of Portuguese speakers in the PRC was limited, their

contributions were significant in advancing Chinese foreign policy.

Li (2017) further asserts that the first formal major in Portuguese language was

established in 1960 by the institute that later became the Communication University of

China. Subsequently, BLCU and SISU introduced their own Portuguese programs between

1966 and 1977. By the year 2000, these three institutions alone had collectively trained

around four hundred translators and interpreters throughout China.

China has also resorted to sending students abroad for Portuguese studies. After all,

sending students abroad is a resource when domestic conditions are not mature yet. This

is why in 1959 there were mainland Chinese students—seven in total—studying

Portuguese in Macau (Wang, 2001). Political turmoil inside China would also be

responsible for adopting this strategy a few years later. For example, during the Cultural

Revolution (1966–1976), a five-student group was sent to Macau to study Portuguese.

In the 1980s, more than ten Chinese were sent to Brazil as an experience abroad.

In contrast, Portuguese language education in Macau began much earlier. According to

Li (2017), Portuguese teaching commenced in the 16th century, coinciding with the

arrival of Portuguese explorers. Notably, the Colégio de São Paulo was founded in 1594.

However, it was not until the 19th century that official schools began to emerge. Li (2017)

highlights the significance of the Opium Wars in this educational evolution, listing several

schools established during that period, including Escola Comercial Pedro Nolasco da Silva

(1887), Liceu Macau (1894), and Escola Sínica (1914), which was the first translation

school. Although none of these institutions were classified as higher education

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

260

establishments, they laid the groundwork for future developments in Portuguese

language education in the region (Li, 2017).

From the 1980s on, Chinese students have gone to Portugal on scholarships from the

Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, the Camões Institute and Fundação Oriente. The

Chinese government has also put an effort toward the diffusion of Portuguese in order to

train diplomats. In the 1990s, however, Macau would play a more important role. In the

late 1990s, the Chinese government sent 16 to 18 people to study at the University of

Macau, and by the 2000s, more than a hundred Chinese had been sent abroad by

government authorities to study Portuguese (Wang, 2001).

Diplomatic ties were also very important to motivate Portuguese teaching in China. China

established diplomatic relations with Brazil in 1974 and with Portugal in 1979. China was

also interested in establishing ties with countries like Mozambique and Angola who had

just become independent, respectively (Mozambique in 1975 and Angola in 1983). It is

also noteworthy that all these relations have been important to China all along, from then

to the present, as noted by SISU’s professor Victoria Almeida (Radar China, 2022).

Conditions were being created to make way to the 3

phase proposed by Zhang et al.

(2020), which was 1978-1999. This context set the stage for the third phase proposed

by Zhang et al. (2020), which spanned from 1978 to 1999. This period was characterized

by the reforms and opening-up policies initiated by Deng Xiaoping.

In China, foreign languages that are taught are divided into major languages

(mainstream languages like English, Spanish and French) and minor languages (those

considered “minority” languages). Historically, Portuguese has fit into the second

category. Nevertheless, Portuguese learning has not only connected China to Brazil and

Portugal but also to countries in Africa. This way, the Portuguese language has meant

access to an important part of what is now called the Global South. In addition,

Portuguese has become an important working language. As Wang (2001) points out, to

learn Portuguese one would have to go to BFSU or SISU, for example, both of which

being top elite universities in China. This may support the argument that a career in the

Portuguese language in China is somewhat prestigious.

How would a young person choose a career related to the Portuguese language?

Especially from 1949 to 1966, a student would be assigned a major considering what the

state needed. That means this was not an individual choice. In other cases, students

applied to universities and, once selected, the universities would assign them a major

that was in demand in society. As Wang (2001) explains, that meant that Portuguese

actually chose the students, not the other way round.

The current situation of Portuguese language education in China corresponds to the

fourth phase identified by Zhang et al. (2020), which spans from 2000 to the present.

Pires (2022) conducted a comparative analysis of existing data on Portuguese language

institutions, educators, and students in the country. The analysis reveals that there are

currently 6,370 students and 221 teachers of Portuguese across 56 higher education

institutions in China; this number rises to 304 when including Macau (as of 2021).

Jatobá (2020) reviews the history of Portuguese language instruction in China and

emphasizes the multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary nature of language policy and

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

261

planning in the region. He argues that this approach presents both advantages and

disadvantages. On one hand, it facilitates the analysis of language education from

multiple perspectives across different fields. On the other hand, the fragmentation of

linguistic policy into various areas of study may lead to its marginalization, rendering it

secondary both academically and socially. This subjugation to a specific discipline

diminishes the autonomy of the language as a subject of inquiry. Consequently, the

broader implications of language in shaping and influencing behaviors are often

overlooked.

Yan (2019) highlights the period after 2000 as a significant time of progress for

Portuguese language education in China. As the country has become more open and its

economy has experienced substantial growth, the number of courses and learners has

increased, accompanied by improvements in the quality of Portuguese teaching at

universities. Moreover, the evolving diplomatic and socioeconomic contexts, along with

new foreign language teaching policies in China, have contributed to this advancement.

However, these developments also present both challenges and opportunities for

Portuguese educators, particularly in the context of globalization and superdiversity. With

a growing number of Portuguese speakers, teachers face increased competition in the

job market, necessitating a deeper understanding of the realities faced by Chinese

students and a commitment to maintaining and enhancing the quality of instruction (Yan,

2019).

Radar China (2022) reports that there are 55 higher education institutions offering

Portuguese courses at some level (either an elective or free course, degree, discipline,

minor or major, undergraduate or graduate, etc.), all of which focusing on Portuguese as

a foreign language. Out of these 55, 22 are partners with Brazilian universities, with

student exchange. The main Brazilian partners are the Federal University of Rio Grande

do Sul, the Campinas State University and University of São Paulo. Among the private

ones, the Armando Álvares Penteado Foundation (FAAP) stands out. The data also shows

that there are 316 teachers of Portuguese in China, 36 of whom being Brazilian.

Nonetheless, as expected, all figures of foreign teachers came down after the COVID-19

pandemic. Currently, most teachers of Portuguese in China are Chinese, and have been

trained at BISU, BFSU or SISU.

SISU, for instance, is among the three universities that pioneered Portuguese-teaching

in China. SISU is one of few that offer a master’s degree in Portuguese. China has only

recently begun offering a doctorate in Portuguese language via the Beijing Language and

Culture University (BLCU), and, with time, Portuguese teaching has extended into other

regions and provinces—for example, from the far north to Hubei province, where the

Confucius Institute fosters much of the process. What the students acquire from these

programs is instrumental competency, allowing them to eventually become translators

and interpreters. They also obtain some knowledge on history and culture especially

pertaining to Portugal and Brazil. At SISU, Portuguese is essentially offered to third- and

fourth-year (20 to 21 years old) university students (Radar China, 2022).

The students’ background generally comprises a solid foundation in Chinese politics and

advanced English language skills. Upon graduation, many students find jobs in the private

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

262

sector, such as in the communication and marketing departments of companies like

Huawei or Xiaomi, and some of these students would go on to gain experience in other

markets, such as Brazil and Africa. Other graduates enter the public sector, securing

positions in diplomacy or state-owned enterprises with projects abroad, as reported by

Professor Victoria Almeida (Radar China, 2022).

Wang (2001) explains why, even since decades ago, the number of graduates of

Portuguese hired in Beijing has been higher than in Shanghai: a number of those

employed in Shanghai have had to subsequently leave the city because most jobs there

are in the private sector. On the other hand, Portuguese speakers are more needed for

governmental relations, and Beijing offers more of those opportunities. In diplomacy, for

example, the Chinese government tends to give preference to those majoring in

Portuguese for diplomatic positions in Portuguese-speaking countries. Also, a number of

Chinese ministries have positions and opportunities for those who speak Portuguese.

Moreover, the media offer jobs for Portuguese speakers. For example, Beijing Radio,

China Radio International (CRI), China publications in foreign languages, and Xinhua

News Agency. Academically, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences also benefits from

Portuguese speakers.

Currently, across all regions of China—including Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and

Macau—there are more than 60 higher education institutions offering programs in

Portuguese (Zhang et al., 2020). These institutions provide a range of academic

qualifications, including bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, doctorates, and minors.

Zhang et al. (2020) also identifies emerging trends in Portuguese language education in

China, such as an increasing number of qualified teachers and a growing array of

exchange opportunities. Notably, initiatives like the Greater Bay Area and the Belt and

Road Initiative (BRI) are highlighted as significant factors driving this trend. This

indicates that China is making considerable efforts to facilitate cultural and educational

exchange. However, this raises the question: what is Brazil's role in this dynamic? The

following section will provide insights into Brazil's contributions and responses to these

developments.

In fact, Portuguese is expanding in China, but Brazil’s participation in it does not quite

match its magnitude as the biggest Portuguese-speaking country in the world. This

discrepancy is even more surprising considering that China has been Brazil’s biggest trade

partner since 2009. As Professor Victoria Almeida (Radar China, 2022) points out,

historically, Portuguese teaching in China used teachers from Portugal as a point of

reference. It is only recently that teachers from Brazil have become more prevalent. One

of the reasons for this may be because of initiatives such as the lectureship program

(Programa de Leitorado). At SISU, for example, Portuguese belongs to the Department

of Latin American and European Studies, where Spanish, Greek, Italian and others

languages are included. Chinese students often lack the background to distinguish them,

and often do not consider Brazil as part of Latin America. The teachers from Latin America

therefore have to make an effort to better introduce their part of the world to the

students. For example, the Brazilian professors may present specific facets, such as post-

colonial readings and history of their home country to offer a broader panorama of the

Portuguese language to supplement an otherwise overly Eurocentric study. Nevertheless,

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

263

teaching materials from Brazil are still scarce, and while there are Chinese students who

want to go to Brazil, such opportunities are limited, and the costs are high.

From the graduates’ point of view, many of them want to find jobs in private companies,

especially those in Shanghai. They will become executives/interlocutors for Brazilians in

virtually all states of the South American country. In fact, the Chinese know less about

African Portuguese-speaking countries and East Timor than they know about Portugal or

Brazil. This is because Chinese students who choose the former countries as research

topics are rare, causing them to only acquire cursory knowledge at best. For Professor

Victoria Almeida, a significant amount of work still needs to be done in this regard (Radar

China, 2022).

In spite of the above-mentioned exchanges with Brazilian universities (partnerships with

USP, Unicamp, UFRS and UEL (Londrina State University, in Panará State)), this is still

only just a handful of the universities in Brazil. According to Almeida (Radar China, 2022),

there are far more Chinese students returning from exchanges in Portugal, whose best

universities offer exchanges with Chinese students. It is a long-term process, so it will

take long before Brazil builds a teaching culture in China. As a case in point, the

Portuguese Department at SISU is more than ten years old, but it was not until recently

that it had its first Brazilian teacher. Therefore, their course about Brazil is also only a

recent addition.

Brazil, however, has made some efforts to promote the dissemination of Brazilian

Portuguese. Brazil has established a lectureship program (Programa de Leitorado) that

sends its teachers abroad to teach Portuguese in universities in countries around the

world. Back in 2010, 13 lecturers were selected, two of whom took up positions in China:

one at BISU and the other at the Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. In fact, among

all countries considered (the other being Argentina, Bolivia, Cameroon, Chile, Guinea

Bissau, Lebanon, Paraguay, Peru, Ukraine and Vietnam), China was the only country with

two spots. There were three canceled slots: Cote d’Ivoire, Cuba and another Peruvian

university (Brazilian Government, 2010). In 2023, 19 Brazilian lecturers were selected in

the program for a number of countries: the U.S., Peru, Greece, Bahamas, Mexico, Bolivia,

Spain, South Africa, Russia, Czech Republic, France, Chile, Finland, Israel and Italy. The

U.S., China and France each had two slots. For China, one opening was at BFSU and the

other at the Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (Brazilian Government, 2023).

According to Professor Victoria Almeida (Radar China, 2022), Chinese students learning

Portuguese at SISU generally know little about Brazil beyond football and music, with

only a few students having some knowledge of social issues like corruption and racism.

This limited understanding highlights the need to deepen cultural exchange and

knowledge-sharing between the two countries. Some aficionados, in turn, appreciate

bossa nova and telenovelas/soap operas. Almeida opines that Brazil should explore

cultural diplomacy, translation of Brazilian literature as well as other initiatives. In fact,

the most translated Brazilian authors into Chinese are Jorge Amado and Paulo Coelho,

but beyond that this area is largely unexplored and has a great deal of growth potential.

Machado de Assis also has some works translated into Chinese, but only a smattering of

Brazilian course books or textbooks (on language, history or society) have been

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

264

translated. In contrast, Portugal has far more titles translated into Chinese, not to

mention the fact that most Portuguese language textbooks in China are by authors from

Portugal or by Chinese trained in Portugal.

In the 1980s, Brazilian audiovisual productions generated some appeal to Chinese

audiences. For example, the soap opera Slave Isaura and the country music duo

Milionário and José Rico obtained unexpected success and increased Brazil’s soft power,

which, for decades up to that juncture, had been mostly fueled by Brazilian football. In

the 21st century, intensified relations between Brazil and China increased cultural

exchange. For example, in 2004, the year of the presidential meeting between Presidents

Lula and Hu Jintao, the Forbidden City in Beijing housed a special exhibit called The

Amazon. In the 2010s, the Festival of Brazilian Cinema took place in Beijing and Shanghai

to showcase Brazilian productions the Chinese audiences. In 2012, a Chinese translation

of the 1968 book Meu pé de laranja lima (“My sweet orange tree”) by José Mauro de

Vasconcelos was released, along with a movie adaptation of it shown on the big screen

in Beijing, which piqued the curiosity of Chinese youth. A few years later, with the support

of the Brazilian government and the University of Macau, a Chinese translation of O

homem que sabia javanês (“The man who could speak Javanese”), a tale by Lima Barreto,

was launched. Other Brazilian authors translated in Chinese include Cristóvão Tezza and

Amílcar Bettega. Nevertheless, these are still incipient cases and really cannot be

considered enough for promoting Brazil in China. Moreover, if we juxtapose this with the

above-mentioned initiatives in Macau, where countless authors from Portugal are

translated and divulged, it becomes even clearer: the process of cultural exchange needs

the participation of non-state actors—including the media, literature and audiovisual

productions—as much as it needs commitment from governments.

Compared to Brazil, Portugal has a greater framework in Portuguese teaching overseas.

It offers lectureship programs and scholarships to Chinese students (master’s and

doctoral degrees) as well as a partnership with the Camões institute (Instituto Camões).

Portugal also facilitates acquisition of titles, besides promoting the translation of

Portuguese novels in China. In contrast, Brazil does not make such a structured effort.

As a result, at present most Chinese students of the Portuguese language tend to use

European Portuguese as a basis or at least have it as reference. In Macau, the majority

of Portuguese teachers are from Portugal (Pires, 2022). Founded in 1992, The Instituto

Camões is a public Portuguese institute that promotes Portuguese language and culture

worldwide, through cooperation and educational and cultural exchanges. This institute

has several areas of activity, including language teaching, cultural promotion and

academic cooperation. It operates Portuguese language and cultural centers in various

countries, providing Portuguese language courses and supporting the teaching of

Portuguese as a foreign language. The Institute ensures the dissemination, promotion

and teaching of Portuguese language and culture in nearly 80 countries, in cooperation

with 357 higher education institutions and organizations. The institute also organizes

cultural events, such as exhibitions, concerts and literary festivals, to showcase

Portuguese arts and heritage. Additionally, it facilitates academic exchanges and research

collaborations between Portugal and other countries Camões (n.d.-a, b).

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

265

Pires (2023) conducted a comparative analysis of state policies and strategies promoting

Portuguese and Spanish as foreign languages in China, viewing Portugal and Spain as

'exporters' and China as an 'importer' of these languages. The research highlights the

global activities of institutions tasked with this mission, followed by an examination of

their implementation within China. Notably, gaps in the strategy for exporting Portuguese

to China were identified, despite a favorable context for its adoption. The author offers

recommendations for more effective use of existing resources and points out areas with

significant potential for growth. The study suggests that language teachers should act

not only as instructors but also as ambassadors for Portuguese language and culture.

Additionally, it argues that Camões, I.P. should transition from a system that primarily

benefits partner universities to one that actively promotes Portuguese language and

culture in China. In addition, it emphasizes the need to expand cultural outreach and

course offerings to the general public in mainland China.

In terms of Chinese institutions, there have been a great deal of efforts to keep cultural

exchange alive, and the Confucius Institutes play a decisive role in facilitating Portuguese

learning in China. If cultural partnerships succeed, much of it will be owed to the

Chinese’s effort. In fact, all cooperation involving the Confucius Institutes since 2004,

fostered by the Chinese government, have prompted Chinese universities to teach

Portuguese, along with the languages of the other countries involved in the cooperation.

In addition, university exchanges and the Forum for Economic and Trade Cooperation

between China and Portuguese-speaking Countries (Forum Macau), both motivated by

investments in Portuguese-speaking countries, contribute to the diffusion of Portuguese.

In some cases, like at Hubei University, the Portuguese course is a preparation for

educators and volunteers before their teaching assignment at the Confucius Institutes in

Brazil.

The year of 2024 is important because it marks not only the 50th anniversary of Sino-

Brazilian diplomatic relations but also the 20th anniversary of the High-Level Sino-

Brazilian Commission on Consultation and Cooperation. Moreover, China and Brazil have

been strategic partners since 1993. In fact, Brazil is the first country with whom China

established a strategic partnership. In 2012, the partnership became a global strategic

partnership. Such an increase in level of cooperation can boost the role of Brazil in

Portuguese teaching in China.

This is all in line with the “people-to-people connections” pillar of China’s landmark Belt

and Road Initiative (BRI) established in 2013. Although the BRI’s flagship projects are

related to infrastructure integration, beyond the economic and infrastructure aspects, the

people-to-people connections pillar, one of five that the BRI is based on, reflects China’s

aim and commitment to deepening cultural exchange and mutual understanding through

facilitating more human interactions. In July 2024, President Lula announced that the

Brazilian government would be joining the BRI. What this signifies—if considered in

conjunction the fact that of the more than 140 countries that have signed on to the BRI,

only 20 of them are from the Latin American region—is that though there are existing

Chinese investments in Brazil, it is possible that Brazil’s joining the BRI would bring more

opportunities of infrastructure integration and therefore more cultural exchanges.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

266

Li (2015) notes that many Lusophone countries are located along the “Maritime Silk Road

of the 21st Century.” The author emphasizes the historical significance of the Portuguese

language in the ancient Maritime Silk Road, which primarily encompassed the Indian

Ocean. Since the 15th century, following Vasco da Gama's voyages, Portuguese has

wielded considerable influence throughout the region—and it continues to do so today.

Consequently, Li (2015) argues that the Portuguese language is essential for the success

of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

In May 2024, Brazilian vice president Geraldo Alckmin visited China for the COSBAN

meeting, during which he met with Chinese president Xi Jinping and together announced

a number of agreements amounting to R$ 24 billion (US$ 4.49 billion) in investments,

including a broadening of the market for Brazilian coffee and a possibility to establish a

Brazil House in Shanghai. As 2024 is the year Brazil presides over the G20, the COSBAN

meeting represents a momentous occasion for Sino-Brazilian bilateral relations. Among

other agreements from the COSBAN meeting, such as enhancing satellite cooperation

and fighting poverty and starvation, was an MoU involving Portuguese language teaching

(TV GGN, 2024). In addition, result no. 4 of the meeting highlights bilateral cooperation

in many—including cultural—areas (Brazilian Government, 2024, 2024a). In 2023, along

with President Lula, the Minister of Culture of Brazil, Margareth Menezes, visited

universities and other cultural spaces, paving the way for agreements such as one signed

on audiovisual cooperation.

In November 2024, Brazil will host the highly anticipated G20 summit, an event that will

prove especially significant for China-Brazil relations as both sides look forward to the

next level of partnership: Will it involve deeper collaboration under initiatives like the

Nova Indústria Brasil Program and the new PAC (Program for Growth Acceleration)? How

will Brazil joining the BRI impact Sino-Brazilian partnership? We will be especially

interested in the answers to these questions in the context of cultural exchanges between

the two countries.

5. Discussion and Conclusion

As we have seen, the Portuguese language has shown growing importance in the global

scenario demographically, economically and politically. This relevance is expected to

continue to rise, especially given the immense development anticipated in Portuguese-

speaking African countries. Brazil plays a unique role in promulgating Lusophone

influence on the world, due to its large number of native Portuguese speakers and

presence in several regional organizations.

The Portuguese language’s potential for expansion is promising, especially with

demographic growth and the advancement of digital technologies. For Brazil, although

the promotion of Portuguese is seen as a tool for cultural diplomacy and for elevating its

global image, the country has not seized every opportunity to stamp its presence,

especially with regard to promoting itself in China despite strong bilateral economic

partnership between the two countries. How can Brazil best leverage its role as a global

Lusophone leader to promote the Portuguese language in China?

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

267

Mendes (2019) advocates for a more cooperative and transnational approach to the

global promotion of the Portuguese language, highlighting the importance of Brazil's

active and cooperative participation in multilateral policies aimed at the promotion and

diffusion of Portuguese. This includes leveraging the involvement of international higher

education institutions in Brazil. In line with this perspective, we believe Brazil can

capitalize on the current context, which encompasses several favorable factors, to adopt

a more collaborative approach to promoting the Portuguese language in China. This

favorable context can be understood across global, national, and regional/local levels.

On the global level, the new Lula administration in Brazil has tried a rapprochement with

China, and Brazil has already committed to joining the Belt and Road Initiative (CLBrief,

2024) and appointing a permanent representative at Forum Macau (TDM, 2024). This

goes beyond the misgiving and reservation that Brazil has shown over the years in

relation to Forum Macau (Mendes, 2013, pp. 288–289). The year 2024 marks two

important anniversaries in the context of Sino-Brazilian relations: the 50th anniversary

of diplomatic ties and the 20th anniversary of the High-Level Sino-Brazilian Commission

on Consultation and Cooperation. Since China established a strategic partnership in

1993—the first of its kind—with Brazil, relations between the two have evolved into a

global strategic partnership (instated in 2012).

At the national level in China, Brazil could take advantage of what is happening with the

teaching of Portuguese in mainland China. After years of rapid growth in the number of

learners of Portuguese, we are now in a phase of investing in so-called area or regional

studies. These studies refer to the interdisciplinary academic fields that focus on the

study of a particular geographic region or cultural area of the world, and go beyond just

the study of languages. Brazil’s higher education and research institutions can contribute

to strengthening China’s area studies on Portuguese-speaking countries and Latin

America by undertaking research and analysis of the social, economic, political and

cultural dynamics of the target regions. Area studies can provide a deeper understanding

of the needs, opportunities and challenges faced by partner countries. These studies play

a vital role in facilitating China’s engagement with the world, particularly within the

framework of the Belt and Road Initiative.

At the regional and local level, Brazil can take advantage of Macau’s advantages and

special status, namely the “one country, two systems” policy, the international free port,

the autonomous customs zone, the simple and reduced tax regime, and Macau’s role as

a service platform for cooperation between China and Portuguese-speaking countries.

The “Development Plan for Appropriate Economic Diversification of the Macao Special

Administrative Region (2024-2028)” also offers opportunities with a focus on promoting

the development of key industries such as traditional Chinese medicine, the modern

financial industry, cutting-edge technology, and the MICE (meetings, incentives,

conferences and exhibitions) and culture and sports sectors (DSEPDR, 2024).

Indeed, it is time for Brazil to have a more significant presence in Macau, not only through

diplomatic channels but also by stimulating the involvement of various non-state actors

such as chambers of commerce and investment, professional associations, Brazilian

cultural centers, media outlets, art and cultural foundations, among others. This

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

268

constellation of partners can help Brazil to leverage Macau’s role as a generator of

opportunities, something that Brazil has not fully taken advantage of yet. A strengthened

presence in Macau would allow a consolidation of existing partnerships between Brazilian

and mainland Chinese universities, by bringing Chinese students learning Portuguese

closer to Brazilian companies, strengthening the connection between education and the

entrepreneurial ecosystem of the Greater Bay Area, producing locally-adapted teaching

materials for the Chinese context, ultimately bringing Brazil and China closer together

through the unique environment that Macau offers.

This article has examined Brazil’s pivotal role as the world’s largest Lusophone country

in the global promotion of Portuguese, a language that holds significant global importance

with a very promising growth projection in the coming decades. As highlighted by the

perspective of Cooper (1989), the promotion of languages abroad is often driven by

political, economic and cultural interests, and requires coordinated policy initiatives. We

have seen how Brazilian foreign policy has been actively promoting the Portuguese

language in some geographies, but without drawing its attention towards China. By

fostering Portuguese language education in China, Portuguese—despite its linguistic

challenges for non-Romance language speakers—not only deepens cultural exchanges

but also enhances mutual understanding. In the long run, the importance of cultural

rapprochement between the two countries supports Chinese businesses and institutions,

and enhances China’s engagement with the broader Lusophone world, of which Brazil is

the largest member. This engagement can help grant China access to vital resources and

markets in Brazil and Africa, potentially contributing to China’s domestic food safety and

energy security, and supporting the broader movement in financial markets to

internationalize the use of the Chinese yuan. Macau has been instrumental as a cultural

conduit between China and the Portuguese-speaking world, serving historically as a

meeting point. This role has been increasingly recognized and valued by the People’s

Republic of China. Nevertheless, while there is political will and a favorable environment

in Macau, more concerted efforts from Brazil will be required to materialize these

opportunities.

References

Bagno, M., & Carvalho, O. (2015). O potencial do português brasileiro como língua

internacional. Interdisciplinar - Revista de Estudos em Língua e Literatura.

https://periodicos.ufs.br/interdisciplinar/article/view/3850

Barão, G. (2023, May 2). Promoção e difusão da língua portuguesa como projeto regional

Parte II – O IILP/CPLP na visão da política externa brasileira. Observatório de

Regionalismo. https://observatorio.repri.org/2023/05/02/iilp-cplp-parte2/

Beckhauser, A. S. (2018). A língua portuguesa como recurso da política externa brasileira

à luz da diplomacia cultural. In Domínios de Lingu@gem (Vol. 12, Issue 2, p. 784). EDUFU

- Editora da Universidade Federal de Uberlandia. https://doi.org/10.14393/dl34-

v12n2a2018-2

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations 
e-ISSN: 1647-7251 
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1 
Thematic Dossier  
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order 
December 2024, pp. 248-273   
Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:  
Building Bridges Through Macau  
João Simões, Daniel Veras  
 
 
 
269 
Brazilian  Government  (2010).  Edital  DRI/CGCI  nº.  023/2009.  Leitorado  em 
Universidades Estrangeiras - CAPES SELEÇÃO FINAL. Brasilia-DF: Ministério das Relações 
Exteriores  e  Departamento  Cultural  Divisão  de  Promoção  da  Língua  Portuguesa. 
https://www.gov.br/capes/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/selecaofinal-edital-leitorado-023-
2010-pdf  
Brazilian Government (2023). Edital No.  27/ 2023. Programa de Leitorado Guimarães 
Rosa.  Brasilia-DF:  Coordenação  de  Aperfeiçoamento  de  Pessoal  de  Nível  Superior 
(CAPES).  https://www.gov.br/capes/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/resultados-dos-
editais/26062024_Edital_2405386_SEI_2402823_Edital_27_2023.pdf  
Brazilian Government (2024). Minutes of the Seventh Plenary Session of the High-Level 
Sino-Brazilian  Comission  on  Consultation  and  Cooperation  (COSBAN).  Brasilia-DF: 
Ministério  das  Relações  Exteriores.  https://www.gov.br/mre/pt-br/embaixada-
pequim/VII-COSBAN-Minutes 
Brazilian  Government  (2024a).  Alckmin  meets  with  Xi  Jinping  to  conclude  mission  to 
China,  securing  over  BRL  24  billion  in  credits  for  Brazil.  Brasilia-DF:  Secretaria  de 
Comunicação  Social.  https://www.gov.br/secom/en/latest-news/2024/06/alckmin-
meets-with-xi-jinping-to-conclude-mission-to-china-securing-over-brl-24-billion-in-
credits-for-brazil 
Camões.  (n.d.-a).  Áreas  de  Atuação.  https://www.instituto-camoes.pt/sobre/sobre-
nos/identidade/areas-de-atuacao  
Camões.  (n.d.-b).  Identidade.  https://www.instituto-camoes.pt/sobre/sobre-
nos/identidade  
Camões.  (2022,  May  5).  Dia  Mundial  da  Língua  Portuguesa.  https://www.instituto-
camoes.pt/images/pdf_noticias/Dados_sobre_a_língua_portuguesa_de_2022.pdf  
Carvalho, S. da  C. (2016). Políticas de promoção internacional  da  língua  portuguesa: 
ações  na  américa  latina.  Trabalhos  Em  Linguística  Aplicada,  51(2),  459–484. 
https://periodicos.sbu.unicamp.br/ojs/index.php/tla/article/view/8645363 
CLBrief. (2024, July 23). Brazil Open to Joining China’s Belt and Road Initiative. CLBrief. 
https://www.clbrief.com/brazil-open-to-joining-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative/  
Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language planning and social change. Cambridge University Press. 
CPLP. (n.d.). Histórico - Como Surgiu? https://www.cplp.org/id-2752.aspx  
CPLP. (2021). Plano Operacional para a Promoção e Difusão da Língua Portuguesa (2021–
2026). https://www.cplp.org/Files/Filer/1_CPLP/Lingua/Livro-Plano-Operacional-Lingua-
Portuguesa-vfinal.pdf 
Cummings,  M.  C.  (2003).  Cultural  diplomacy  and  the  United  States  government:  A 
survey. Washington, DC: Center for Arts and Culture. 
Diniz,  L.  R.  A.  (2012).  Política  linguística  do  Estado  brasileiro  para  a  divulgação  do 
português em países de língua oficial espanhola. Trabalhos em Linguística Aplicada (Vol. 
51,  Issue  2,  pp.  435–458).  FapUNIFESP  (SciELO).  https://doi.org/10.1590/s0103-
18132012000200009  

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

270

DSEPDR. (2024, October). Development Plan for Appropriate Economic Diversification of

the Macao Special Administrative Region (2024-2028). Macao Special Administrative

Region. https://www.dsepdr.gov.mo/uploads/attachment/2024-03/e-book_E.pdf

Eberhard, D. M., Simons, G. F., & Fennig, C. D. (Eds.). (2024). Ethnologue: Languages

of the world (27th ed.). SIL International.

https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/

Garcia, E. V., & Coelho, N. B. R. (2018). A Seat at the Top? A Historical Appraisal of

Brazil’s Case for the UN Security Council. Sage Open, 8(3).

https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018801098

Gienow-Hecht, J. C., & Donfried, M. C. (Eds.). (2010). Searching for a cultural diplomacy.

Berghahn Books. https://doi.org/10.3167/978184545746

Gil, J. (2009). The Promotion of Chinese Language Learning and China’s Soft Power.

Asian Social Science (Vol. 4, Issue 10). Canadian Center of Science and Education.

https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v4n10p116

Haugen, E. (1983). The implementation of corpus planning: Theory and practice. In J.

Cobarrubias & J. A. Fishman (Eds.), Progress in language planning: International

perspectives (pp. 269-289). Mouton.

Jatobá, J. R. (2020). Política e Planejamento Linguístico na China: Promoção e ensino da

língua portuguesa. Doctorate Thesis. Português como Língua Estrangeira. Faculdade de

Artes e Humanidades. University of Macau, China.

Kaplan, R. B., & Baldauf, R. B. (1997). Language planning: From practice to theory.

Multilingual Matters.

Li, C. (2012). Ensino de Língua Portuguesa na República Popular da China durante a

Década de 60 do Século XX. In Actas do 1.º Fórum Internacional de Ensino da Lingua

Portuguesa na China (pp. 35-42). Instituto Polítécnico de Macau.

Li, C. (2015). A língua portuguesa e a estratégia económica de “Uma Faixa e Uma Rota”,

In Lei Heong Iok (Ed.). Actas do 3.º Fórum Internacional do Ensino da Lingua Portuguesa

na China (pp. 3-24). Instituto Polítécnico de Macau.

Li, C. (2017). Inspiração histórica: o ensino da língua portuguesa e a China moderna, In

Lei Heong Iok (Ed.). Actas do 4.º Fórum Internacional do Ensino de Lingua Portuguesa

na China (pp. 3-22). Instituto Polítécnico de Macau.

Mendes, C. (2013). A relevância do Fórum Macau: O Fórum para a Cooperação

Econômica e Comercial entre a China e os Países de Língua Portuguesa. Nação e Defesa.

https://comum.rcaap.pt/bitstream/10400.26/9672/1/MENDESCarmenAmado_Arelevanc

iadoforumMacau_oforumparaacooperacaoeconomicaecomercialentreaChinaeospaisesdel

inguaportuguesa_N_134_p_279_296.pdf

Mendes, E. (2019). A promoção do português como língua global no século XXI. Linha

D’Água (Vol. 32, Issue 2, pp. 37–64). Universidade de Sao Paulo, Agencia USP de Gestao

da Informacao Academica (AGUIA). https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2236-

4242.v32i2p37-64

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

271

Mendes da Silva, A. (2021, February 3). O papel da política externa brasileira na difusão

da língua portuguesa e da Lusofonia na América Latina a partir do século XX". Revista

Relações Exteriores. https://relacoesexteriores.com.br/peb-lingua-portuguesa-

lusofonia/

Miyamoto, S.. (2009). O Brasil e a comunidade dos países de língua portuguesa (CPLP).

Revista Brasileira De Política Internacional, 52(2), 22–42.

https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-73292009000200002

Mkhoyan, A. (2016). Soft power, Russia and the former Soviet states: a case study of

Russian language and education in Armenia. International Journal of Cultural Policy,

23(6), 690–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286632.2016.1251426

MRE. (n.d.). Instituto Guimarães Rosa? https://www.gov.br/mre/pt-br/assuntos/cultura-

e-educacao/instituto-guimaraes-rosa

Noack, C. (2022). Politics of the Russian language beyond Russia. Edinburgh University

Press.

Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics. Public Affairs.

Oliveira, L. M. (2020). A promoção internacional do português brasileiro a partir das

práticas do Programa de Leitorado. Domínios de Lingu@gem (Vol. 14, Issue 3, pp. 947–

977). EDUFU - Editora da Universidade Federal de Uberlandia.

https://doi.org/10.14393/dl43-v14n3a2020-9

Paradise, J. F. (2009). China and International Harmony: The Role of Confucius Institutes

in Bolstering Beijing’s Soft Power. Asian Survey (Vol. 49, Issue 4, pp. 647–669).

University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2009.49.4.647

Pestana, L. F. (2019). O ensino da língua portuguesa no âmbito da iniciativa “Faixa e

Rota.” Diacrítica (Vol. 32, Issue 2, pp. 366–385). University of Minho.

https://doi.org/10.21814/diacritica.446

Pires, M. (2022). Português na China: os números do ensino superior (Portuguese in

China: Higher Education in numbers). Revista Thema, 21(3), 602–614.

https://ssrn.com/abstract=4160230

Pires, L. T. A. (2024). Análise do atual planeamento e políticas de português língua

estrangeira na China: comparação com o caso do espanhol língua estrangeira e

recomendações para planeamento e políticas articuladas. Doctorate Thesis, Portuguese

Studies. Política de Língua. Universidade Aberta, Portugal.

http://hdl.handle.net/10400.2/15852

Radar China (2022, May 20). A China e o ensino da língua portuguesa. Interview with

SISU Professor of Portuguese, Victoria Almeida [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1C2bXb90zw&t=597s

Rajagopalan, K. (2008). The Role of Geopolitics in Language Planning and Language

Politics in Brazil. Current Issues in Language Planning (Vol. 9, Issue 2, pp. 179–192).

Informa UK Limited. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664200802139471

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

272

Reto, L., Esperança, J., Gulamhussen, M. A., Machado, F. L., & da Costa, A. F. (2012).

Potencial Económico da Língua Portuguesa.

Silva, D. B. D. (2011). De flor do Lácio a língua global: uma análise da política linguística

para a difusão do português no mundo globalizado. XI Congresso Luso-afrobrasileiro de

Ciências Sociais. Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador-Bahia. Agosto, 2011.

https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2580.9445

Statista. (2024, Feb 19). Languages most frequently used for web content as of January

2024, by share of websites. https://www.statista.com/statistics/262946/most-common-

languages-on-the-internet/

Tang, S. (2020). O Estado, as Dificuldades e as Contramedidas do Curso de Língua

Portuguesa na China Continental Sob a Estratégia “Um Cinturão E Uma Rota” – Tendo a

Universidade de Estudos Internacionais de Sichuan como exemplo. Prolíngua (Vol. 15,

Issue 1, pp. 145–153). Portal de Periodicos UFPB. https://doi.org/10.22478/ufpb.1983-

9979.2020v15n1.52452

TDM (2024, April 24). Forum Macau: Brazil mulls appointment of permanent

representative. TDM. https://www.tdm.com.mo/en/news-detail/956310

Ullrich, D. R., & Carrion, R. M. (2014). A Cooperação Brasileira na Área da Educação nos

Palops no Período 2000-2012: Principais Atores e Projetos. Revista Sociais e Humanas

(Vol. 27, Issue 1). Universidad Federal de Santa Maria.

https://doi.org/10.5902/231717587847

TV GGN (2024, June 17). A missão do Brasil na China (COSBAN) | Observatório de

Geopolítica. Interview with Ana Tereza Marra (Federal University of the ABC Region –

UFABC), Pedro Steenhagen (Fudan University) and Victoria Almeida (SISU) [Video].

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MPrLG1Dom10&t=3229s

Vianna da Cruz, E. F. (2013). As Políticas de Divulgação e Internacionalização da Língua

Portuguesa—O Exemplo do Mercosul. [Master Dissertation, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais

e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa]. https://run.unl.pt/handle/10362/10210

Vieira de Jesus, D. S. (2012). Uma Flor Chamada Desejo: o Brasil e o poder na Língua

Portuguesa. Caderno CRH, 25(65), 309–318.

Waldvogel, D. A., & de Souza, I. S. (2018). Brazil’s Rise and Portuguese as a Strategic

Foreign Language: Preparing Tomorrow’s Military Leaders. Hispania (Vol. 100, Issue 5,

pp. 289–294). Project MUSE. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpn.2018.0070

Wang, Suoying. (2001). A língua portuguesa na China. Cadernos de PLE. Estudos

Variacionistas e Aplicados em Língua Não Materna.

https://doi.org/10.34624/CADERNOSPLE.V0I0.36769

Yan, Q. R. (2019). O desenvolvimento do ensino de português na China: História,

situação atual e novas tendências. In Y. Yan & A. Albuquerque (Eds.), O ensino do

português na China: Parâmetros e perspectivas (pp. 24-52). UFRN.

Yudina, N., & Seliverstova, O. (2020). External Language Policy and Planning as Part of

Soft Power Policy. In Proceedings of the IV International Scientific and Practical

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 248-273

Brazilian Foreign Policy and the Quest to Promote Portuguese:

Building Bridges Through Macau

João Simões, Daniel Veras

273

Conference “Anthropogenic Transformation of Geospace: Nature, Economy, Society”

(ATG 2019). IV International Scientific and Practical Conference “Anthropogenic

Transformation of Geospace: Nature, Economy, Society” (ATG 2019). Atlantis Press.

https://doi.org/10.2991/aer.k.200202.063

Zhang, Y., Lopes, I. P., & Castelo, A. (Eds.) (2020). Livro Azul - Relatório sobre o Ensino

do Português em Instituições de Ensino Superior da China (1960-2020). Macau: Instituto

Politécnico de Macau.