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Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier – Brazil-China relations:
The rise of modern International Order
December 2024
222
PRC-BRAZIL COLLABORATION IN RENEWABLE WIND ENERGY:
A CASE STUDY OF INTERDEPENDENCIES THROUGH THE LENS OF LIBERAL
INTERDEPENDENCE THEORY
BAIBA BITENIECE
biteniecebaiba@gmail.com
Master’s degree in Social Sciences in International Relations from Rīga Stradiņš University,
(Latvia). She holds a Bachelor’s degree in Humanities from the Latvian Academy of Culture,
Latvia (2019) and studied Humanities as part of the Erasmus+ program at Universidad de Alcalá,
Spain, in the same year. Baiba is fluent in Latvian (native), English (C2), Spanish (C2), and
Italian (C1). She studies Organizational Psychology, coaching principles, and Human Resources.
Her research interests are focused on Human Resources, particularly on enhancing employee
well-being. She continuously expands her expertise in the HR field and researches people
management to improve employees' daily work experiences. Her most recent training was in
“Psychological First Aid” for employees. ORCID: 0009-0007-6725-4194).
DANA DŪDA
dana.yizhe@gmail.com
Doctoral student in political science at Rīga Stradiņš University in Riga (Latvia). She earned a
Master of International Affairs (MIA) from Ming Chuan University, Taiwan (2024). She holds a
Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) from Chinese Culture University, Taiwan (2022), and a
Bachelor of Arts in Business Chinese (BA) from Shanghai Normal University, China (2018). She
also completed Advanced Chinese Studies at Central China Normal University in 2015. Since
2024, Dūda has been an Affiliate Researcher at the China Studies Centre at Rīga Stradiņš
University and the Latvian Institute of International Affairs. She has previously served as a
communications assistant, liaison officer, administrative assistant, speechwriter, fundraiser,
international business consultant, and Mandarin interpreter. Dana speaks Latvian (native),
English (C2), and Mandarin (Simplified and Traditional, C2). Dūda's research interests focus on
Chinese political discourse analysis and China-Taiwan relations. ORCID: 0009-0001-2561-6114).
Abstract
This paper examines the strategic collaboration between the People’s Republic of China (PRC)
and Brazil in the renewable wind energy sector. PRC’s strategic engagement with Brazil in
renewable wind energy has significantly impacted global energy markets, enabling the PRC to
expand its investment, technological exports, and geopolitical influence in wider Latin America
(LA). This study addresses the concerns surrounding the PRC’s growing role in Brazil’s wind
energy sector- including investments and control over renewable energy production. Guided
by the theoretical framework of Liberal and Economic Interdependence, this paper aims to
answer the research question of how the PRC’s renewable wind energy strategy in Brazil
contributes to creating strategic dependencies and potential vulnerabilities associated with
reliance on Chinese capital. Employing a qualitative methodology combining official document
analysis, political discourse analysis, and expert interviews, this paper examines PRC’s official
strategies, energy diplomacy, and security implications, as well as the political and economic
motivations driving its investments, technological exchanges, and joint ventures. The study
evaluates the prospects of mutual interdependence between PRC and Brazil and offers insights
from international renewable wind energy experts on the geopolitical implications of PRC’s
involvement in the global wind energy sector. Concluding that PRC’s strategic engagement
drives collaboration and growth in Brazil’s wind energy sector, creating mutual
interdependencies. However, these interdependencies are asymmetrical, resulting in greater
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
223
dependencies for Brazil compared to the PRC. Despite this imbalance, the cooperation also
fosters some dependencies for the PRC, albeit to a lesser extent. The study contributes to the
understanding of Sino-Brazilian energy relations and offers insights into the geopolitical
implications of PRC’s involvement in emerging renewable energy markets.
Keywords
Brazil, Economic Interdependence, PRC, PRC-Brazil Collaboration, Renewable Wind Energy.
Resumo
Este artigo examina a colaboração estratégica entre a República Popular da China (RPC) e o
Brasil no setor das energias eólicas renováveis. O envolvimento estratégico da RPC com o
Brasil na energia eólica renovável teve um impacto significativo nos mercados globais de
energia, permitindo à RPC expandir o seu investimento, as exportações tecnológicas e a
influência geopolítica na América Latina (AL) mais ampla. Este estudo aborda as preocupações
em torno do papel crescente da RPC no setor da energia eólica do Brasil - incluindo
investimentos e controlo sobre a produção de energia renovável. Guiado pelo quadro teórico
da Interdependência Liberal e Económica, este artigo pretende responder à questão de
investigação de como a estratégia de energia eólica renovável da RPC no Brasil contribui para
a criação de dependências estratégicas e potenciais vulnerabilidades associadas à
dependência do capital chinês. Empregando uma metodologia qualitativa que combina a
análise de documentos oficiais, a análise do discurso político e as entrevistas com
especialistas, este artigo examina as estratégias oficiais, a diplomacia energética e as
implicações de segurança da RPC, bem como as motivações políticas e económicas que
impulsionam os seus investimentos, intercâmbios tecnológicos e joint ventures. O estudo
avalia as perspetivas de interdependência mútua entre a RPC e o Brasil e oferece insights de
especialistas internacionais em energia eólica renovável sobre as implicações geopolíticas do
envolvimento da RPC no setor global da energia eólica. Concluindo que o envolvimento
estratégico da RPC impulsiona a colaboração e o crescimento no setor da energia eólica do
Brasil, criando interdependências mútuas. No entanto, estas interdependências são
assimétricas, resultando em maiores dependências para o Brasil em comparação com a RPC.
Apesar deste desequilíbrio, a cooperação também promove algumas dependências para a
RPC, embora em menor grau. O estudo contribui para a compreensão das relações energéticas
sino-brasileiras e oferece insights sobre as implicações geopolíticas do envolvimento da RPC
nos mercados emergentes de energias renováveis.
Palavras-chave
Brasil, Interdependência Económica, RPC, Colaboração RPC-Brasil, Energia Eólica Renovável.
How to cite this article
Biteniece, Baiba & Dūda, Dana (2024). PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy: a Case
Study of Interdependencies Through The Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory. Janus.net, e-
journal of international relations. VOL 15 N.º 2, TD1 – Temathic Dossier – “Brazil - China Relations:
The Rise Of Modern International Order”. December 2024, pp. 222-247.
https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0324.11.
Article received on 3 June 2024 and accepted for publication on 30 September 2024.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
224
BEYOND IRON ORE: REFRAMING THE BRAZIL-CHINA
PARTNERSHIP AS A MULTIFACETED ENGAGEMENT
LORHAN DE OLIVEIRA PEREIRA
KAI YIN ALLISON HAGA
1. Introduction
The 21
st
century has seen profound changes in the global energy sector due to the
impacts of climate change caused by extensive fossil fuel use. Transitioning to green
energy is essential for sustainable socioeconomic development, and mitigating climate
change effects. In recent years, PRC and Brazil have increased their bilateral cooperation
in renewable energy production, which has come with an increase in Chinese investments
and technological exchange. PRC companies produce around 90% of solar and wind
technologies in LA. PRC’s increased control over Brazil’s renewable energy production
and distribution has raised international concerns (Myslikova & Dolton-Thornton, 2023).
While the PRC’s growing presence in Brazil strengthens its economy, it also affects Brazil’s
politics and security. Although this partnership offers sustainable alternatives to fossil
fuels, concerns persist over the PRC’s geopolitical strategy, which may lead to
dependence on PRC capital and control over Brazil’s critical infrastructure. Therefore,
analyzing the PRC-Brazil collaboration in wind energy provides a valuable case study on
the opportunities and risks involved. This paper analyzes the PRC’s strategy and
investments in renewable wind energy in Brazil, examining the implications for
interdependence between the PRC and Brazil through the lens of Liberal and Economic
Interdependence Theories.
The central argument is that while cooperation in renewable wind energy can provide
benefits like technology transfer and increased investments, the PRC’s strategy in Brazil
can create asymmetric dependencies on Chinese capital, potentially limiting Brazil’s
autonomy.
To address the research question, of how the PRC’s renewable wind energy strategy in
Brazil contributes to creating strategic dependencies and potential vulnerabilities
associated with reliance on Chinese capital- this study employs a qualitative methodology
encompassing several key components. Firstly, an extensive document analysis was
conducted, scrutinizing official publications and strategic documents from both the PRC
and Brazil. This analysis utilized sources in multiple languages, including Chinese,
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
225
English, Latvian, Portuguese, and Spanish, to ensure a comprehensive and nuanced
understanding of the subject matter. Secondly, a political discourse analysis was
implemented to elucidate the political and economic motivations underlying the PRC’s
renewable energy investments and strategies. This involved a meticulous examination of
speeches, policy documents, and official statements, providing insight into the strategic
rationale behind the collaboration. Furthermore, the study incorporated expert interviews
with international renewable wind energy specialists, garnering diverse perspectives on
the geopolitical implications of the PRC’s involvement in Brazil’s wind energy sector. This
multifaceted approach was chosen to facilitate a comprehensive evaluation of the
strategic dependencies and potential vulnerabilities associated with the PRC-Brazil
collaboration in the renewable wind energy sector.
The research presented in this article encompasses a time frame, spanning from the early
2000s to 2023, to analyze the collaborative efforts between the PRC and Brazil in the
renewable wind energy sector. This timeframe is strategically chosen to capture the full
arc of this partnership, beginning with PRC’s initial forays into global economic expansion
and culminating in the most recent developments as of early 2023. By examining over
two decades of engagement, the study provides a longitudinal perspective that allows
the identification of significant trends, policy impacts, and investment patterns. This
period of analysis enables a nuanced understanding of how geopolitical initiatives, such
as the PRC’s “Going Out” Policy (走出去战略),
1
and the Belt and Road Initiative (一带一路)
(BRI), have shaped the trajectory of Sino-Brazilian cooperation in wind energy, by
offering insights into both historical and contemporary contexts.
To answer the research question, this article will systematically analyze several key topics
and follow a structured approach. The Introduction sets the contextual background,
introduces the PRC-Brazil collaboration in the energy sector, and presents the central
research question and objectives. The Literature Review introduces the theoretical
frameworks of Liberal Interdependence Theory and Economic Interdependence and
examines the historical and geopolitical context of PRC-Brazil relations, alongside existing
literature on their renewable energy collaboration and perspectives from both PRC and
Brazilian scholars. The section on Official PRC Strategies offers a detailed analysis of
PRC’s strategies in the renewable wind energy sector, including historical policies and
initiatives like the “Going Out” Policy and BRI. The PRC’s Energy Diplomacy and Security
Implications section explores PRC’s energy security concerns and the role of its energy
diplomacy and resource security. PRC Investments section analyzes the investments
made by PRC in Brazil’s renewable wind energy sector and the impact of Chinese
companies and financial flows. The Prospects for Mutual Interdependence section
examines the mutual dependencies created by PRC-Brazil cooperation, discussing
potential risks and benefits for both countries. Insights from International Renewable
Wind Energy Experts provide a summary of expert interviews on PRC’s involvement in
global wind energy and diverse perspectives on the topic of mutual interdependence.
Finally, the Conclusions answer the research question, summarize the findings, assess
1
Also known as the “Going Global Strategy”.
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
226
the asymmetric interdependencies between PRC and Brazil, and offer policy
recommendations for Brazil.
2. Literature Review
The liberal interdependence theory in IR suggests that actions by one entity significantly
impact the outcomes and values of others (Coate, Griffin, & Elliott-Gower, 2017). There
are two key dimensions of interdependence: sensitivity and vulnerability. Sensitivity
measures the response to external influences before policy changes, while vulnerability
reflects the costs imposed even after policy adjustments (Keohane & Nye, 2001).
Whereas economic interdependence refers to a state where parties- individuals, groups,
companies, or nations- engage in transactions to satisfy their mutual needs through
trade. This implies that all parties are interwoven in a network of economic dependencies,
which drives international trade and cooperation. While mutual dependency may foster
trade and profit opportunities it also poses potential risks like inequality and exploitation
by dominant parties. Excessive reliance on a few external suppliers can lead to
vulnerabilities in supply chains, which, in the event of disasters like economic downturns
or natural calamities, could halt business operations and lead to economic downturns.
Thus, evaluating supply chain stability and considering risk factors is crucial for
minimizing negative business impacts and establishing fair, transparent, and sustainable
economic relations (Tomasetti, 2024). Risks associated with economic interdependence
include supply chain disruptions and increased costs. Excessive interdependence can be
seen as a matter of national vulnerability- where participants may face significant costs
if their relationship deteriorates (Baldwin, 1980).
While liberal scholars believe economic interdependence reduces political conflicts by
incentivizing trade over aggression- the First and Second World Wars have demonstrated
that high interdependence does not prevent war (Copeland, 1996).
The political and economic relations between the PRC and Brazil began centuries ago,
but the end of the Cold War and the bipolar international order facilitated the
development of broader relationships. Until the 1990s, Brazil’s development was
primarily financed by the US. Yet PRC has capitalized on diminishing US influence to
expand its economic presence through economic instruments like trade, loans, and
investments- facilitating Brazil’s distancing from US, and creating favorable conditions
for PRC’s expansion.
Yet, there is limited literature on the PRC-Brazil collaboration in the renewable wind
sector, thus it is helpful to examine the official perspectives from both sides by
scrutinizing the official strategic initiatives and bilateral agreements between the two to
assess the extent of the potential interdependencies derived from this cooperation.
To better understand Chinese perspectives, previous research has outlined the necessity
of analyzing specifically the Chinese-language material through political discourse
analysis examining official PRC’s policies and strategies (Berzina-Cerenkova, 2024).
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
227
Economic cooperation directs PRC’s foreign policy and prioritizes relations with other
countries. Chinese and Brazilian scholars alike emphasize that this partnership is driven
by the global shift transitioning toward renewable energy sources, exacerbated by
escalating petroleum costs and environmental concerns associated with nonrenewable
resources (Peng et al., 2019; Junior et al., 2019). Both states position the collaboration
in renewable energy as an opportunity to enhance their efforts in sustainable energy
production (Xie et al., 2021; Vardiero et al., 2020). As one of the world’s largest carbon
emitters, PRC’s move towards clean energy is significant on a global scale. The latest
PRC’s 14
th
Five-Year Plan (十四五规划)(2021-2025) underscores its commitment to
innovation-driven, sustainable, and low-carbon renewable energy production from 2021
to 2025- aiming to cap PRC’s CO
2
emissions by 2030 (Global Wind Energy Council, 2023).
Yet, the rapid expansion of renewable energy projects in LA has raised concerns
regarding the PRC’s growing geopolitical and economic influence. Approximately 90% of
renewable technologies in LA are produced with PRC support. PRC’s dominance in
renewable energy supply chains has raised international alarm, prompting LA countries
to seek ways to secure sustainable energy resources independently (Myslikova & Dolton-
Thornton, 2023).
Increased Chinese influence has sparked discussions on the security of global renewable
energy supply chains and the associated risks of energy dependence. Since 2021, PRC
has been the world’s largest and fastest-growing renewable wind energy producer. As of
January 2023, the PRC’s total operational wind park capacity was 278,353 megawatts
(MW), affirming its position as the global leader in the renewable energy sector (Maguire,
2023).
Moreover, PRC has made substantial investments in wind energy projects in Brazil,
reflecting its long-term commitment to sustainable energy production in Brazil (Geng et
al., 2021). The largest PRC investors in Brazil are the PRC state-owned enterprises
(SOEs) such as China Three Gorges Corporation as well as private firms [albeit with
significant government support and involvement] such as Goldwind and Envision. These
enterprises are the key drivers of PRC-Brazil’s collaboration in the renewable wind energy
sector providing investments and technical expertise (Dudgeon, 2011). According to
Chinese scholars, Goldwind and Envision investments in financing and developing wind
energy projects in Brazil have led to economic benefits in both countries (Bai et al.,
2010).
By mirroring practices in the US, to incentivize the development of wind farms Brazilian
government has launched several fiscal programs. Noteworthy, these projects have been
aligned with Brazilian national development goals for sustainable energy production
(Hansen & Zambra, 2020).
PRC-Brazil wind energy collaboration is executed through various organizations and
initiatives, focusing on partnerships and investments, especially in regions of Northeast
Brazil (Chen et al., 2009). Chinese investments in Brazil are mostly channeled through
Brazilian government initiatives such as the Programme of Incentives for Alternative
Electricity Sources (PROINFA), which aims to increase the use of alternative energy
sources and enhance Brazil’s renewable energy capacity, by including wind, biomass, and
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
228
small hydroelectric power in Brazil’s electricity mix. Through PROINFA Brazil has aligned
wind farm development with the PRC’s sustainable energy objectives (Ma et al., 2021).
Thus, facilitating PRC’s contributions to Brazil’s renewable energy development (Deng et
al., 2020; Wang et al., 2023). Chinese scholars emphasize that such joint policy shifts
have created favorable conditions for future collaboration (Zhao et al., 2013). Yet,
despite these positive developments, Chinese scholars admit that challenges such as
cultural differences, regulatory barriers, and logistical issues persist, requiring enhanced
strategic planning (Chen et al., 2009).
Additionally, Brazilian institutions such as the Brazilian Electricity Regulatory Agency
(ANEEL) and the Energy Research Office (EPE) provide essential research data on
renewable energy generation to PRC. Other mechanisms such as the Auction of
Alternative Sources have been further institutionalized to promote this collaboration
(Vardiero et al., 2020).
Brazilian scholars note that the technological transfer of PRC’s wind turbine technology
has boosted Brazil’s renewable energy capacity and simultaneously contributed to
advancing innovation in Brazil’s local industries (Diagne et al., 2020).
Chinese scholars note that the main motivation for the PRC’s collaboration with Brazil lies
in strategic diversification attempts of PRC’s energy investments abroad to enhance PRC’s
national energy security, in line with its broader geopolitical objectives (Han et al., 2015).
The main policy framework governing this bilateral collaboration is executed through
initiatives like the BRI, which is also the driving force of PRC’s foreign policy (Deng et al.,
2023).
As reported by the PRC’s official Belt and Road Energy Cooperation Network, BRI is
beneficial to Brazil as it aims to leverage its influence to enhance Brazil’s national
development strategies. For example, Brazil has announced ambitious plans for
renewable energy development by 2030 aiming to increase the proportion of renewable
energy in the country’s energy matrix to 45%. Which includes a shift towards non-
hydropower renewable sources like wind, solar, and biomass (一带一路能源合作网, 2019).
To Enhance infrastructure and energy sector collaborations, PRC-Brazil signed the “Ten-
Year Cooperation Plan,” (十年合作计划)(2012-2021) which allowed Brazil to align its
national development strategies with PRC’s renewable energy strategies under the BRI
umbrella. This reflects Brazil’s commitment to diversify its energy sources to support
economic growth. BRI serves as the core platform for PRC to foster renewable energy
cooperation with Brazil. During Xi Jinping’s (习近平) visit to Brazil in 2014, a joint
statement was issued that underscored the importance of renewable energy production
for sustainable development (IIGF观点, 2019). In 2020, PRC’s BRI investments in the
renewable energy sector in Brazil accounted for 57% of total investments, in alignment
with PRC’s “3060 carbon neutrality goals”. Furthermore, although Brazil is not an official
member of BRI, PRC has actively advocated for Brazilian industries to join the initiative
to “leverage the BRI to foster sustainable, low-carbon growth through enhanced Sino-
Brazilian cooperation in renewable energy sectors.”(巴西《经济价值报》, 2021).
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
229
As reported by PRC state-run Xinhua News Agency, a tangible example of PRC-Brazil
collaboration is the 180-MW wind energy project in Bahia [Northeastern Brazil],
developed by China General Nuclear Power Group’s Brazilian subsidiary. Xinhua
emphasizes that “this project exemplifies the integration of economic and social benefits
through shared development and technological advancements; [..] and that the project
which was completed ahead of schedule has received positive recognition for PRC’s
contributions to the local renewable energy development in Brazil and thus has
strengthened the two-state bilateral relations.”(罗婧婧, 2023).
Noteworthy, as Chinese scholars note, these interdependencies make them economically
and politically dependent. Increased political engagement primarily arises from
intensified bilateral interactions and economic impulse primarily stems from
strengthening commercial ties. This mutual dependency has made political and economic
relations more conventional and predictable (Guo, 2023).
Yet, Chinese and Brazilian academics alike view this collaboration as a positive-sum
game, where both countries benefit- PRC gains access to Brazil’s rich resources and
opportunities for technological exchange, and Brazil gains Chinese investments and
expertise in renewable energy technologies (Peng et al., 2019; Vardiero et al., 2020).
According to Chinese scholars, this partnership is focused on achieving mutual
environmental benefits while contributing to progress towards the UN’s global
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Shi et al., 2004).
The existing academic literature, while limited, recognizes that the PRC’s collaboration
with Brazil in the renewable wind energy sector is driven by strategic, economic, and
geopolitical motivations. PRC’s reliance on coal has supported its rapid economic
development but also led to significant environmental issues like acid rain. PRC’s
strategies include investments, technology transfers, and policy support, with SOEs and
private firms playing crucial roles. Despite challenges, both governments view this
partnership as beneficial for sustainable development and bilateral relations. Although
Brazil is not officially part of the BRI, its alignment with BRI-like development strategies
facilitates Chinese investments in Brazil’s renewable energy sectors, creating
opportunities for asymmetric dependencies between the two countries.
3. Official PRC’s Strategies
When PRC opened its economy to the world in 1978, it facilitated the growth of
commercial interactions between PRC and global market. This process accelerated
significantly after the PRC’s admission to the WTO in 2001. The “Going Out” Policy (1999)
was one of the first Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) strategies implemented to facilitate
economic growth; aiming to promote Chinese investments abroad; and enhance access
to foreign markets, natural resources, and advanced technologies to support the PRC’s
economic growth. It was launched in response to an internal crisis related to industrial
overcapacity and in connection with the PRC’s accession to the WTO. It aimed to promote
the PRC’s national interests globally by internationalizing PRC state financing and
investments to ensure long-term access to energy and raw materials from abroad. From
the PRC’s perspective, this strategy aims to transform Chinese SOEs into corporations
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
230
with global reach (Jáuregui & González, 2022). Thus, this policy is a component of the
PRC’s overall national economic modernization strategy (Nash, 2012).
In March 2001, at the East Asia-Latin America Forum, the former PRC Foreign Minister
Tang Jiaxuan (唐家璇) emphasized the need to foster the economic and political exchange
between the two regions through the PRC’s “South-South”(南南合作) framework (Ministry
of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2001). Just a couple of months later
in December 2001, PRC acceded to the WTO. Since then, its global strategy has
consistently evolved (WTO, 2024).
The adoption of the “Going Out” Policy as part of the CCP’s 10
th
Five-Year Plan (第十个五
年计划)(2001-2005), officially endorsed Chinese entities to enter international markets
and resources. During this period, initially, only a few Chinese companies operated in
Brazil that were supported by both governments to establish relationships and develop
the necessary financial, legal, and physical infrastructure to facilitate Chinese company
operations. In the following CCP’s 11
th
Five-Year Plan (第十一五规划)(2006–2010), CCP
encouraged companies to “Go further outwards.” (Policy Asia-Pacific Energy, 2024).
During this period, Chinese companies engaged in larger and more complex foreign
investment transactions internationally, using strategies such as forming joint ventures;
establishing wholly owned subsidiaries- particularly in the manufacturing sector; and
focusing on mergers and acquisitions (M&A) that offer quick access to new markets and
technologies.
One of the most significant changes over the past two decades is that Brazil has assumed
an important role in PRC’s global strategy. As identified from the literature review,
building on these initial “South-South” collaborations, on June 21, 2012, in Rio de Janeiro,
both parties signed a new strategic framework- the “Ten-Year Cooperation Plan” (十年合
作计划)(2012-2022). This foundational document serves as a blueprint for the strategic
partnership between PRC and Brazil; emphasizing technology, innovation, economic
cooperation, and cultural exchanges, with a focus on renewable energy technologies,
including wind energy (中华人民共和国商务部, 2012).
PRC’s success in Brazil stems from a grand, well-calculated strategy that combines
political impulses with economic resources. Since 2012, Xi Jinping has designated Brazil
as a “comprehensive strategic partner”- the highest status of its kind. Since 2012, both
country leaders have visited each other multiple times, Xi visited Brazil 3 times and
Brazilian presidents have visited PRC 4 times. As Xi stated in 2017, “Latin America is a
natural extension of the 21
st
century Maritime Silk Road.”(Hobbs & Torreblanca, 2022).
Brazil possesses abundant natural resources- holding a significant share of the world’s
rare earth minerals (REEs) needed for renewable energy production- which makes Brazil
an attractive region for wind energy development. While Brazil is leveraging these
resources to enhance economic growth and improve energy security, it is also witnessing
heightened PRC’s involvement.
The “Going Out” Policy is undoubtedly part of the PRC’s broader, more active foreign
policy. However, the PRC’s domestic economic conditions have also been a major driving
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 222-247
PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
231
force. This includes growing challenges with the old growth model and changing
relationships between the government, SOEs, and banks.
Overall, the “Going Out” Policy has yielded benefits both domestically and internationally,
as capital flows that once came from the West are now reversing, creating mutual
advantages. However, the impact of the PRC’s investments and its broader “Going Out”
Policy on the global political and economic order remains uncertain. Since the policy’s
introduction at the turn of the century, Chinese companies have increasingly invested
and operated overseas. Initially a major recipient of FDI, PRC has now become a
significant source of FDI abroad. For example, the China Investment Corporation (CIC)-
PRC’s largest sovereign wealth fund, was established in 2007 with $200 billion in
investable assets which now has at least doubled (Nash, 2012). This shift exemplifies a
substantial expansion of the PRC’s financial influence beyond its borders.
Chinese investments have increasingly targeted energy and raw materials sectors- which
the PRC needs to maintain its domestic growth objectives. Significant FDI flows to
resource-rich countries and regions, like Africa, Australia, Canada, LA, and Southeast
Asia have raised global concerns that PRC may be attempting to hoard a dangerously
large portion of the world’s natural resources and implement a neo-colonial agenda that
disregards human rights and humanitarian issues (Nash, 2012).
PRC’s global strategy in renewable wind energy is supported by the “Going Out” Policy.
For example, to establish wind farms Chinese wind turbine manufacturers enter new
markets through joint ventures and technology licensing (Oxford Business Group, 2023).
The “Going Out” development strategy has been significantly facilitated by the BRI
infrastructure program- a complementary governmental effort launched in 2013 by Xi
Jinping- which aims to create new opportunities for international cooperation through
tangible large-scale infrastructure projects connecting Asia with other continents.
However, there is a tendency to underestimate the obstacles facing the BRI, both
domestically and internationally, leading to excessive optimism from its supporters and
exaggerated concerns from those fearing wider PRC influence globally (Wang, 2016).
While BRI offers opportunities for infrastructure development and economic growth in
LA, it also presents challenges and risks that must be carefully managed. PRC’s ambitious
investments in the region strengthen its influence over global supply chains, creating
new challenges and opportunities in renewable energy development and geopolitical
stability. Although Brazil is not part of BRI, Brazil must engage with BRI in ways that
maximize benefits and minimize risks.
PRC-Brazil collaboration in renewable wind energy sector is executed through strategic
frameworks like the “Ten-Year Cooperation Plan” [as part of BRI] and the “Going Out”
Policy. These frameworks facilitate the PRC’s economic presence by establishing
infrastructure projects and trade routes between PRC and Brazil. These initiatives have
facilitated significant investments and technological integration, contributing to Brazil’s
renewable energy goals, while the primary goal of these initiatives is to ultimately
transform Chinese SOEs into global corporations.
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4. PRC’s Energy Diplomacy and Security Implications
Energy security is a global issue and a concern of national security; only few countries
can ensure independent supply. As a large developing country with over 1.3 billion
people, PRC’s energy needs are projected to grow significantly, and PRC must continually
increase its energy supply to meet these demands. The “Going Out” Policy and the BRI
have significantly influenced the global energy market through extensive external
investments and rapid growth in the renewable energy sector. As a leader in wind and
battery technology, exemplified by companies like BYD (比亚迪汽车), PRC competes
robustly in the global technology market challenging other nations in transitioning to
renewable energy (Hilton, 2024).
Energy security remains a significant concern for PRC- influencing both its domestic and
international energy strategies. Energy investments are a critical component of the PRC’s
diplomacy, representing its initial multilateral approach to establishing global influence.
Bilateral relations with resource-rich regions, such as Africa, Central Asia, and LA, reflect
a nuanced strategy tailored to the specific characteristics and ideological preferences of
each country.
PRC’s energy diplomacy utilizes a concept of resource diplomacy, defined by David Zweig
as “diplomatic actions aimed at enhancing nation’s access to resources and its energy
supply security” (Oxford Business Group, 2023). Resource security involves ensuring a
stable provision of energy at affordable prices and the ability to transport these resources
efficiently.
PRC’s “New Security Concept” (新安全观), declared in 1996, emphasized that energy is a
primary national interest and that acquiring foreign resources is essential for achieving
this goal. While some Western analysts view PRC’s overseas energy investments as a
means to expand its hegemony, Chinese scholars argue that these investments are
primarily focused on securing energy supplies (Oxford Business Group, 2023; Zhou,
2015). Thus, it could be argued that PRC’s energy diplomacy is driven by both resource
security and economic growth, rather than solely by climate change concerns.
PRC’s bilateral relations with Brazil illustrate complex interdependence, with significant
investments in Brazil’s wind energy sector fostering mutual influence. PRC’s strategy
targets both energy-rich and developed countries to secure its vast energy needs.
Chinese analysts distinguish between “energy security” and “energy sufficiency,” noting
that since the 1970s while PRC lost self-sufficiency in energy, it has improved its energy
supply security through international cooperation (Aggarwal, 2022).
Chinese companies have rapidly expanded across Brazil, implementing projects and
providing materials to local companies to boost renewable energy production. Chinese
loans and investments finance numerous infrastructure, energy, and mining projects.
PRC’s extensive involvement in Brazil’s energy sector is part of a broader strategy to
expand its influence in LA. From 2000 to 2019 PRC invested over $58 billion in the LA
region’s energy industry (Instituto de las Américas, 2024).
PRC’s drive towards renewable energy and obtaining critical minerals is driven by large-
scale purchases and international tenders won by Chinese companies. For example, in
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2020 Chinese M&As in the LA energy sector reached $7.7 billion, underscoring its
strategic vision for increased global economic influence (Bloomberg, 2020). Supported
by Chinese banks, Chinese renewable energy equipment suppliers have penetrated LA
markets by offering low-cost, competitive technologies. This state financial backing has
facilitated the development of renewable energy projects, even in the face of local
regulatory challenges (Instituto de las Américas, 2024).
This strategic involvement while beneficial, raises concerns about economic and political
dependencies on the PRC. Excessive reliance on Chinese investments could lead to
vulnerabilities in local markets and labor sectors. As PRC plays a leading role in global
wind energy development, its substantial investments and exports of wind turbines in
Brazil underscore its influence in the renewable energy sector. This strategy of capital
flow highlights Brazil’s growing dependence on Chinese technologies and financial
resources, enabling PRC to expand its global market presence in wind energy
development. Therefore, it is crucial for Brazil to develop its own energy technologies
and promote local businesses to ensure a sustainable and independent energy supply.
5. PRC Investments
PRC operates as a non-traditional partner and is a valuable external stakeholder for
Brazil. Chinese investments, trade, and relations with Brazil have exacerbated over the
last decade. PRC invests across various sectors and these investments generally align
with the publicly stated CCP objectives. From 2000 to 2020, the trade value between PRC
and Brazil increased from $1.3 billion to over $90 billion by 2020, marking a 69.2-fold
increase (Atlantic Council, 2021). Projections suggest that by 2035, this trade volume
will exceed $700 billion (Atlantic Council, 2021). Currently, PRC is Brazil’s largest trading
partner (King’s College London, 2022).
The key element of PRC’s economic growth has been government support- enabling
Chinese SOEs to gain market shares in strategically important sectors. Recently, this
support has shifted towards advancing green energy production (Ellis, 2024). Over the
past decade, PRC companies have advanced in the development of critical green energy
sectors, including hydroelectric, solar, wind, EV manufacturing, energy storage, and
transmission. The strengthened positions of Chinese SOEs in these areas enable PRC to
gain substantial profits and strategic leverage as governments worldwide transition from
fossil fuels to green energy (Ellis, 2024).
Companies supported by CCP government and banks have been key investors in LA’s
wind energy sector. In 2008 and 2016, PRC issued two policy documents, reflecting
Beijing’s strategic importance in LA region. They have facilitated the region’s transition
to renewable energy, as approximately 90% of all wind and solar technology installed in
LA is produced by Chinese companies, or partners financially backed by PRC banks. This
increasing dominance of PRC suppliers means that a disproportionately large share of
renewable energy projects in the region, directly or indirectly benefit PRC. These PRC
companies, financed by Chinese banks, use low-cost turbines and other equipment, with
technology largely appropriated from European partners (Ellis, 2024).
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For example, in the 2023 ranking of wind turbine manufacturers Goldwind [PRC], took
first place with 16.4 GW of projects, followed by Envision Energy [PRC] with 15.4 GW.
Next were Vestas Wind Systems [Denmark] with 13.4 GW, Winday [PRC] with 10.4 GW,
and Mingyang [PRC] with 9.0 GW, surpassing the popular General Electric [US], which
had 8.1 GW (Evwind.es, 2023). However, these gradually growing investment projects
have been associated with security and environmental issues.
Furthermore, the entry of Chinese companies into the region as “local participants” has
changed the business and political environment. In Brazil, on the one hand, it created
new opportunities for local stakeholders to access Chinese capital for large-scale projects.
On the other hand, it triggered a defensive reaction from domestic actors, who perceived
themselves as threatened. Other types of investments include FDIs, where PRC
companies either acquire local businesses or establish local branches or factories, and
local investment financing with PRC funds.
During a speech at the first summit of PRC and the Community of Latin American and
Caribbean States (CELAC) (2015), Xi Jinping indicated that over the next decade, Chinese
investments in the region could increase to $250 billion. He emphasized that in recent
years, the PRC has become not just a trading partner and lender to the region but an
increasingly significant investor, increasing the physical presence of its companies and
people in the region (Ellis, 2018).
The maturation of economic relations, due to accumulation of experience by Chinese
companies operating in the region has merged with new international confidence in Xi
Jinping’s government to position Chinese companies for new achievements. On the other
hand, the new protectionism discourse emanating from Donald Trump’s administration
in the US (2017-2021), and its public rhetoric on issues such as immigration, has
confused and alienated important industries in LA, increasing the political desire to
cooperate with PRC, although not everyone in the region is ready to welcome PRC with
confidence and enthusiasm. The presence of PRC-backed companies and citizens working
in Brazil has raised concerns about the socio-political conditions, laws, and policies in the
region, which now impact the operations, profits, and security of these companies.
For example, in Brazil since 2003, Chinese companies have implemented 87 projects
worth $46.8 billion (Ellis, 2018). This new role of investor increases PRC’s political
influence in the region and also acquaints CCP with complex decisions about how and
when to use its growing influence to protect and promote the interests of its companies
in the region, adhering to the principles of “non-interference” in the sovereign affairs of
LA countries (Ellis, 2018). In this process, the PRC positions itself as an actor historically
and politically located in the Global South. It has achieved a significant role in the
development of renewable energy in LA, directly influencing global strategic positioning.
Consequently, LA is being shaped as a strategic platform for PRC’s positioning in the
Western Hemisphere. For example, Zhang, Y. discusses that the geostrategic projection
from Beijing to LA is embedded in a global vision where the “developing world” or the
Global South is seen as a political support base for the major project of restoring PRC’s
power at “la base” (Ellis, 2018). Thus, PRC’s growing significance in LA within the Global
South sphere holds strategic and symbolic importance.
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This unveils two directions explaining the systematic entry of Chinese economic
diplomacy into LA. On one hand, the geopolitical element seeks to expand PRC’s spheres
of influence, including its efforts to internationally isolate Taiwan. This pattern of behavior
benefits from the PRC’s inevitable commercial dynamism, which involves a geo-economic
strategy aimed at capturing LA’s markets, energy, natural resources, minerals, and REEs
(Ellis, 2018).
Reevaluating its bureaucratic orientation and belief in central planning, CCP forms
relationships with countries through carefully crafted and announced plans and policies,
intended for both domestic and international audiences. The government possesses
numerous political and institutional levers to coordinate its conduct even abroad. For
Chinese companies, government plans and policies are akin to the Northern Star crucial
in guiding their actions and indicating which activities abroad are officially approved and
prioritized. For Chinese companies, an important reference from the “Going Out” Policy
is the 2008 “White Paper” (中国对拉丁美洲和加勒比政策文件) on LAC states, which outlined
CCP’s intentions to develop interactions across almost all sectors, ranging from political
and economic to military, considering a wide range of sectors to promote trade and
investment exchanges with the region.
Another significant policy indicating the CCP’s approach was the "1+3+6" trade
interaction concept (中拉“1+3+6”合作新框架) announced by Xi Jinping in July 2014, during
his visit to Brazil for the BRICS summit in Fortaleza. Where Xi emphasized the unified
nature of Chinese operations in LA, along with the three main means of implementation,
which are trade, loans, and investments, and the six key sectors that were their
operational priorities in the region, including- energy and natural resources,
infrastructure construction, agriculture, manufacturing, science and technology
innovations, and information technology. The “1+3+6” concept was also incorporated
into the PRC-CELAC cooperation plan (2015-2019), which was intended as a roadmap for
fostering relations with PRC. Both were mentioned in the second “White Paper” on PRC’s
policy towards LA, published in November 2016, highlighting that the priority of these six
economic areas is an official government policy to direct Chinese investments, loans,
trade, and other activities in the region.
At the national level, investments and other commercial activities are also promoted and
managed through state diplomacy, incorporating official visits, memorandums of
understanding, and other agreements, as well as the establishment and management of
contracts and “strategic partnerships”. This process is fundamentally based on diplomatic
recognition. With few exceptions, official relations are necessary for the Chinese
government to approve loans and set investment priorities in a country. Similarly,
diplomatic relations facilitate the participation of Chinese SOEs in national tenders in the
host country. For example, changes in diplomatic relations, recognizing PRC combined
with its role as a logistics and financing center for the entry of Chinese products into the
region, could open doors for significant Chinese company investments and projects in
the country. Chinese investments in renewable energy are considered the most
significant opportunity to expand trade between Asia and LA. Simultaneously, increasing
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oil and gas extraction in US has prompted major Chinese renewable energy companies
to seek more attractive alternatives.
6. Prospects for Mutual Interdependence
Since 1993, PRC and Brazil have recognized the potential for a strategic long-term
partnership, emphasizing their shared identities as major developing nations. Brazil has
consistently ranked among the PRC’s top trading partners and serves as a key destination
for Chinese FDI. From 2012 to 2023, PRC was Brazil’s leading trading partner, accounting
for 22% of Brazil’s trade in 2023, amounting to $55 billion, compared to 15.9% ($40
billion) with the US- Brazil’s second-largest trading partner (TrendEconomy, 2024).
According to data from the International Energy Agency (IEA), Brazil appears to be a
country where PRC is investing significant resources in clean energy production in LA
(Diálogo Chino, 2024).
Although Brazil is not a member of the BRI, it is a member of the Asian Infrastructure
Investment Bank (AIIB). The PRC-Brazil partnership is marked by expanding commercial
ties and significant Chinese loans and investments. Since 2007, the China Development
Bank (CDB) and the Export-Import Bank of China (EXIM) have extended over $28 billion
in loans to Brazil, primarily directed toward the energy sector (Gallagher & Myers, 2020).
Brazil’s commitment to renewable energy began with the 1997 “Law 9478”, establishing
the basis of its national energy policy. This evolved into the “Ten-Year Energy Expansion
Plan” (PDE), emphasizing the development of wind energy to reduce reliance on fossil
fuels. The PDE 2031 projects that renewable energy sources will comprise about 56% of
Brazil’s total energy matrix by 2031 (Ministério de Minas e Energia, Secretaria de
Planejamento e Desenvolvimento Energético, 2022).
In 2002, Brazil launched the PROINFA to promote wind, biomass, and small-scale
hydropower energy (IRENA, 2015). This was later replaced by the Power Purchase
Agreement (PPA) auction procurement process, overseen by the Brazilian Electricity
Regulatory Agency (ANEEL). Noteworthy, the expansion of renewable energy aligns with
the PRC’s “Going Out” Policy, making the PRC a significant investor in this sector.
From 2015 to 2019, Chinese FDI in Brazil reached $25.9 billion, with wind energy
comprising 72% of this investment. This cooperation has elevated Brazil-PRC energy
sector collaboration to new heights, with substantial capital from Chinese investors,
manufacturers, engineering service providers, and financial institutions (Barbosa, 2020).
Chinese investments in Brazil’s wind energy sector are driven by the notable
complementarity between the two countries. Brazil’s abundant resources, expanding
capacity needs, and favorable market conditions align well with PRC’s financial power and
technological capabilities. This synergy has facilitated Chinese enterprises’ entry into
Brazil, exemplified by the investments and operations of companies like State Grid
Corporation of China (SGCC), China General Nuclear Power Group (CGN), and China
Three Gorges Corporation (CTG) (Barbosa, 2020).
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Brazil’s wind energy sector has also benefited from PRC bank loans. For example, the
CDB granted a $56 million loan to Desenvix Energias Renováveis for constructing the
Barra dos Coqueiros wind farm in 2012. Such investments have allowed Chinese
companies to gain control over significant portions of Brazil’s wind energy capacity,
aligning future operations with their interests (Ellis, 2024).
The PRC’s active involvement in Brazil’s [and wider LA’s] energy markets reflect CCP’s
strategic vision for increased global economic strength. Through significant financial
investments and project acquisitions, PRC has established close economic and political
ties with LA countries, becoming a key player in the energy market. Such Chinese
influence could pose threats to the energy security of Brazil and other LA countries.
Elizabeth C. Economy notes, “Xi is the first Chinese leader to align the country’s
capabilities with vision and strategy to realize the ancient ‘Chinese dream of national
rejuvenation’. CCP is not satisfied with China’s position in the international system. They
seek to change the world order.” (Elizabeth C. Economy, 2021).
Similar notions are exemplified by the former Peruvian presidential candidate Julio
Armando Guzmán who noted that, “The Chinese attitude towards LA has changed.
Initially, China’s influence was primarily based on soft power, trying to convince LA
countries that China’s rise would benefit the region. Now, however, China is willing to
impose its power and use hard force to try to make countries do what it wants.” (Pettus,
2023).
According to Pedro Barbosa, PRC companies own 12% of Brazil’s wind energy production,
transmission, and distribution segments, making PRC the most significant foreign
investor in this sector. This dominant role could lead to political influence, with security
experts highlighting risks if PRC companies monopolize the electricity sector from
production to transmission and retail. Thus, it could be argued that the PRC establishes
asymmetric and coercive economic ties with other countries and uses these ties to deeply
influence local and national governments. The PRC may have been conducting
comprehensive government efforts for years, serving its objectives and undermining
democratic principles through involvement in LA. From policy analysis, it is evident that
PRC’s strategy in Brazil’s renewable wind energy sector fosters mutual dependency
through investments, technology transfer, economic growth, and energy security. The
PRC’s greater resources and financial capabilities may create asymmetry, allowing PRC
to control projects and gain advantages, making Brazil more dependent on Chinese
investments and technologies, thus creating an imbalance in opportunities and influence.
Interdependence in global politics involves mutual influence between countries; Keohane
and Nye’s theory of interdependence asserts that global politics is shaped by “complex
interdependence” among states, non-state actors, and transnational issues. They
emphasize the importance of power and interests intertwined with economic and social
interdependence (Keohane & Nye, 1977).
PRC’s strategy involves diverse connections, beyond governmental ties, including
business relationships, non-governmental involvement, and multinational participation
(Rana, 2015). In the renewable wind energy sector, PRC and Brazil exhibit mutual
interdependence through trade partnerships, technology transfer, and joint ventures.
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PRC’s investments in Brazil’s wind energy projects highlight this interdependence,
creating economic and political linkages.
PRC’s foreign and economic strategy in bilateral relations with Brazil is based on diverse
connections, including liberal market principles and national interests. This
institutionalized system indicates that PRC’s policymaking and actions with Brazil depend
on both international trade principles and national strategies. The main objective of this
cooperation is to ensure a steady supply of energy resources, natural minerals, and REEs
to support PRC’s economic growth and development, particularly in renewable wind
energy.
Nye and Keohane identified three main features of “complex interdependence”- multiple
channels, the irrelevance of military power, and the importance of international
institutions. These features are evident in PRC-Brazil relations, particularly in the wind
energy sector. PRC’s significant economic and political influence is highlighted,
emphasizing the mutual benefits and potential risks of this bilateral partnership. Keohane
(1984) states that “power is no longer used to consider behavior; rather, it provides the
language for describing political action.” This means military power is less important,
while language and communication are crucial for understanding PRC-Brazil relations.
Complex interdependence aligns with renewable energy and energy security concepts.
PRC’s institutional ties with Brazil are executed through investments, cooperation, and
policy frameworks in the renewable wind energy sector, therefore the institutional
context is crucial for understanding PRC-Brazil relations- suggesting that military power
is not the sole factor influencing IR.
Economic interdependence between PRC and Brazil includes trade, acquisition of wind
farms, investments in wind projects, manufacturing components, and control over power
grids. This interdependence is also tied to resource security, as PRC seeks access to
Brazil’s natural resources, including minerals, lithium, and REEs essential for renewable
energy development. PRC’s cooperation with Brazil significantly contributes to the
development of Brazil’s renewable energy sector, including the construction and
operation of wind farms. However, this raises energy security issues, as PRC’s energy
policies impact Brazil, making Brazil vulnerable to PRC’s decisions in the energy sector.
Addressing this cooperation is essential to balance the asymmetry of mutual dependence,
thereby reducing Brazil’s sensitivity and vulnerability to PRC. Keohane and Nye (1977)
distinguish between sensitivity- the response to costly external impacts before policy
changes occur, and vulnerability- which arises when a nation’s welfare depends on the
behavior of others. Despite PRC’s partial vulnerability and sensitivity, asymmetrical
mutual dependence in energy relations between Brazil and PRC functions as a source of
power for PRC and a potential threat to Brazil’s energy security.
PRC’s investments in Brazil’s wind energy sector demonstrate the interaction of
economic, political, and strategic interests. These investments reflect a form of mutual
economic dependence, benefiting all parties through cooperation and shared resources.
However, this mutual dependence also raises concerns about asymmetric dynamics,
potential dependency risks, and PRC’s influence over Brazil’s wind farms and energy
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resources. While PRC has diversified its international relationships, Brazil is significantly
engaged with PRC, relying heavily on Chinese investments and production.
7. Insights from International Renewable Wind Energy Experts
In the context of this study, interviews were conducted with six diverse international
experts from the renewable energy industry to gauge the prospects for potential
interdependencies. These experts, who have chosen to remain anonymous, hail from
various companies and hold different professional titles. Two of the interviewees are high-
ranking employees from Goldwind-a company backed by PRC. Another two hail from
Siemens Gamesa Latam and Central Puerto Renovables, companies operating in LA, and
headquartered in Spain and Argentina, respectively. The last two interviewees are high-
level managers from two separate renewable wind energy companies, based in Denmark
and operating in Taiwan. They represent both local Taiwanese and European
professionals working in Taiwan.
The experts’ views on PRC’s involvement in the global wind energy sector, with an
emphasis on their collaboration with Brazil and the potential for dependencies, were
diverse. Post-interview, a dichotomy emerged between the perspectives of experts
working within Chinese companies and those employed by European and LA
counterparts. This dichotomy was particularly evident about mutual interdependence.
Representatives from Goldwind expressed hope for an increased PRC presence in LA,
asserting that PRC-made engines match the quality of their European equivalents.
However, when discussing the influence and collaboration between the PRC and other
nations, a divergence of perspectives surfaced. While representatives from Chinese
companies [engineer and a high-level manager from Goldwind] expressed optimism
about PRC’s involvement and dismissed dependency concerns, representatives from non-
Chinese financed companies expressed caution. While acknowledging the
competitiveness of Chinese technology, these experts, from Siemens Gamesa LATAM and
Central Puerto Renovables, showed a preference for European technology and
investments, citing their proven quality over the years. They also underscored the need
for strategic caution to prevent potential monopolization.
The discourse around mutual interdependence was a recurring theme in these interviews.
While PRC’s technological advancements and financial investments substantially
contribute to the renewable energy sector, the experts emphasized the need for balance
to avoid over-dependence. They suggested multiple strategic recommendations,
including diversification of investment and technology sources, bolstering local
manufacturing, promoting competitive supply chains, establishing robust policy and legal
frameworks to facilitate market entry for international companies, and conducting
ongoing quality and reliability assessments of imported technologies.
Interestingly, all the experts from non-Chinese companies admitted to not being
concerned about the PRC posing risks in the global wind energy market. They maintained
that their respective companies have their own vision for the future, implying an inherent
confidence in their strategic direction and resilience.
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Conclusions
In conclusion, this study analyzed the complex dynamics of the PRC’s engagement in
Brazil’s renewable wind energy sector. This article aimed to answer the research question
of how the PRC’s renewable wind energy strategy in Brazil contributes to creating
strategic dependencies and potential vulnerabilities associated with reliance on Chinese
capital?
Our analysis reveals that while the PRC’s strategy has indeed fostered significant
collaboration and growth in this field, it has also led to the creation of strategic
dependencies and potential vulnerabilities for Brazil. The relationship between the two
nations in this sector is characterized by mutual interdependencies, but these are notably
asymmetrical in nature. Brazil has become increasingly reliant on Chinese capital and
technology, whereas the PRC’s dependencies on Brazil are comparatively minor. This
imbalance underscores the potential risks associated with Brazil’s growing dependence
on Chinese resources in its renewable energy development.
In 1996, PRC introduced its “New Security Concept” emphasizing energy as central to
PRC’s national interests and prioritizing the acquisition of foreign resources. As one of
the world’s largest economies and leading energy consumers, PRC is also at the forefront
of renewable energy. PRC’s cooperation with Brazil in the renewable wind energy sector
is driven by strategic factors, including- resource availability, market expansion,
technology transfer, climate goals, and geopolitical aims.
To sum up, PRC’s “Going Out” Policy has advanced bilateral ties with Brazil. This strategy
promotes long-term overseas investments and cooperation to access energy and raw
materials while institutionalization of BRI has increased investments in infrastructure
projects such as wind farms and mineral extraction.
Brazil’s vast land areas, especially in the Northeast, are suitable for wind farms, and its
commitment to renewable energy aligns with PRC’s objectives. As one of LA’s largest
economies, Brazil’s energy development is crucial for PRC. The establishment of
numerous wind energy parks and the increase in Chinese investments have resulted in
rapid growth of FDI in renewable energy. To further its interests in the wind energy
sector, PRC has acquired many of Brazil’s largest wind farms and established joint
ventures.
Brazilian government policies, such as wind energy auctions, have been instrumental in
this collaboration. Consequently, Chinese companies have become major investors in
Brazil’s renewable wind energy sector, both in terms of financial investment and raw
material supply. However, this electricity sector faces risks like monopolistic control of
Chinese companies.
Our findings affirm the initial central argument that the PRC’s involvement results in
strategic dependencies for Brazil, aligning with the theoretical framework presented
earlier in this paper. However, it is important to note that these interdependencies
created by the PRC-Brazil cooperation in the renewable wind energy sector while
asymmetric, are not insurmountable. This cooperation results in greater dependencies
for Brazil compared to the PRC. It is important to also emphasize that while this
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1
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Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
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PRC-Brazil Collaboration in Renewable Wind Energy:
a Case Study of Interdependencies Through the Lens of Liberal Interdependence Theory
Biteniece, Baiba & Dana Dūda
241
partnership does create certain dependencies for the PRC, these are relatively minor
when compared to those experienced by Brazil.
To address these challenges, we have proposed several policy recommendations aimed
at helping Brazil mitigate risks and ensure sustainable development and energy security.
These strategies are designed to leverage the benefits of international collaboration while
safeguarding national interests and reducing vulnerabilities. As the global energy
landscape continues to evolve, Brazil must navigate these partnerships strategically,
balancing the advantages of foreign investment and technology transfer with the
imperative of maintaining autonomy and resilience in its renewable energy sector.
In the future, Brazil should ensure Chinese compliance with local laws and renewable
energy policies, while evaluating whether Chinese-financed projects support Brazil’s
renewable energy, economic growth, and SDGs. Prioritizing local companies for wind
farm construction and energy production in renewable energy auctions could be
beneficial. Brazilian specialists and engineers should ensure the operation of wind farms
and manufacture quality parts that could compete internationally. Brazil should leverage
Chinese investments to expand its national electricity transmission systems, crucial for
meeting domestic needs. However, it is important that Chinese companies do not fully
control these transmission enterprises, as this poses a significant threat to Brazil’s energy
supply security. A potential solution for Brazil might be diversifying flexible deals based
on national interests with other major powers, partners, and economies. Although,
attracting FDI requires a series of measures, such as the implementation of clear
regulatory frameworks, streamlining of administrative procedures, and close cooperation
with development institutions- such robust economic growth can be secured with
strategic energy policy and resource development.
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