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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL15, N.º 2, TD1

Thematic Dossier – Brazil-China relations:

The rise of modern International Order

December 2024

145

THREE DECADES OF BRAZIL-CHINA RELATIONS: MAPPING SCHOLARLY

DISCOURSE AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

RODRIGO FRANKLIN FROGERI

rodrigo.frogeri@professor.unis.edu.br

Ph.D in Information Systems and Knowledge Management from FUMEC University (Brazil) in

2019. He holds a Master's degree in Administration (2014) from Centro Universitário Novos

Horizontes (Brazil) and a Bachelor's degree in Computer Science (2001) from Universidade José

do Rosário Vellano (Brazil). He has specializations in Computer Networks (2003), Higher

Education Teaching (2005), and Information Technology Management (2012). He has been

teaching undergraduate and postgraduate courses in management and technology since 2005.

Currently, he is a permanent professor in the Graduate Program in Management and Regional

Development at Centro Universitário do Sul de Minas - UNIS-MG, Brazil. He is a guest professor

in the Master's program in Data Science at Universidad Científica del Sur (Peru) - 2024. He

serves as a technology mentor in the Innovation Ecosystem of Grupo Integrado (Brazil) and as a

guest researcher at Centro Universitário Integrado, Brazil. He leads the following research groups

accredited by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq): GPGDER

- Research Group in Management and Regional Economic Development and GEADO - Research

Group in Organizational Dynamic Ambidexterity. His most recent books/chapters include: "e-

Government and Green IT: The Intersection Point", published in Recent Advances in Data and

Algorithms for e-Government, Springer Nature (2023); "Restructuring of the Brazilian Private

Higher Education Sector through the Entry of Foreign Investment", published in Advances in

Tourism, Technology, and Systems. Smart Innovation, Systems, and Technologies, Springer

Nature (2022); "Mapping the Brazilian Reality in the Development of Special Economic Zones",

published in Special Economic Zones as Regional Development Enablers, IGI-Global (2022); and

"IT Governance in SMEs: the state-of-the-art", published in Research Anthology on Small

Business Strategies for Success and Survival, IGI-Global (2022).

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7545-7529.

YICHAO LI

liyichao@zjnu.edu.cn

Ph.D. degree from the Institute for Research on Portuguese-speaking Countries, City University

of Macau, China. She also received a Master’s degree in comparative civil law (in Chinese) from

the University of Macau (China) in 2018. From 2021 to 2022, she has been a postdoctoral

researcher at the Centre for International Studies (ISCTE-IUL). Since 2023, she is currently an

assistant research fellow at Institute of African Studies, Zhejiang Normal University, China. Her

research interests are the Belt and Road Initiative, Portuguese-speaking countries, and Sino-

African relations. Her latest publication stands as: Leandro, F. J. & Li, Y. (2023). Spatial

Development Initiatives: The Case of African Portuguese Speaking Countries. In Duarte, P. A. B.,

Albuquerque, R., Tavares, A. M. L. (eds.). Portugal and the Lusophone World: Law, Geopolitics

and Insititutional Cooperation. Palgrave Macmillan. Costa, C. M. & Li, Y. (2023). China and

European Union countries: Do Chinese partnerships boost cooperation results?. Janus.net, e-

journal of international relations. Vol. 14, No. 1, TD1–Thematic dossier “European Union-China

relations”, September 2023. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8588-1043.

Abstract

Over the past three decades, China and Brazil have developed a robust and multifaceted

relationship characterized by cooperation across various sectors. This relationship extends

into numerous areas, including poverty reduction, social development, scientific and

technological innovation, environmental protection, climate change mitigation, the low-carbon

economy, and the digital economy. Despite the substantial bilateral relations between Brazil

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 145-174

Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

146

and China, we are particularly interested in understanding the discussions within the scientific

literature over the past 30 years and identifying new avenues for future research. To achieve

this objective, we conducted an extensive Systematic Literature Review and applied

bibliometric laws and lexical analyses to a total of 208 studies. The bibliometric analyses

revealed that the peak of publications involving Brazil and China occurred in 2016. The

scientific journal that published the greatest number of articles was the International

Organisations Research Journal of the Russian Federation, and the most prolific author was

Professor Mihaela Papa from Tufts University in the U.S. We identified four central research

lines that could be developed in future studies: (i) Emerging Geopolitical Dynamics and the

Role of BRICS; (ii) Economic and Trade Relationships within BRICS; (iii) South-South

Cooperation and Alternative Development Models; (iv) Interdisciplinary Perspectives on

BRICS.

Keywords

Bibliometric laws, Bilateral cooperation, BRICS, Lexical Analysis, South-South cooperation,

Trade Relationship.

Resumo

Ao longo dos últimos 30 anos, a China e o Brasil desenvolveram uma relação sólida e

multifacetada, caracterizada pela cooperação em vários setores. Essa relação se estende a

diversas áreas, incluindo redução da pobreza, desenvolvimento social, inovação científica e

tecnológica, proteção ambiental, mitigação das mudanças climáticas, economia de baixo

carbono e economia digital. Apesar das consideráveis relações recíprocas entre o Brasil e a

China, estamos particularmente interessados em entender as discussões na literatura

científica dos últimos 30 anos e identificar novas oportunidades para pesquisas futuras. Para

atingir esse objetivo, realizamos uma extensa Revisão Sistemática da Literatura (RSL) e

aplicamos leis bibliométricas e análises lexicais a um total de 208 estudos. As análises

bibliométricas revelaram que o pico de publicações envolvendo o Brasil e a China ocorreu em

2016. A revista científica com a maior quantidade de publicações foi a International

Organisations Research Journal da Federação Russa, e o autor mais prolífico foi a professora

Mihaela Papa, da Universidade Tufts, nos EUA. Identificamos quatro linhas de pesquisa

centrais que podem ser desenvolvidas em estudos futuros: (i) Dinâmica Geopolítica

Emergente e o Papel do BRICS; (ii) Relações Econômicas e Comerciais dentro do BRICS; (iii)

Cooperação Sul-Sul e Modelos Alternativos de Desenvolvimento; (iv) Perspectivas

Interdisciplinares sobre o BRICS.

Palavras-chave

Leis bibliométricas, Cooperação bilateral, BRICS, Análise lexical, Cooperação Sul-Sul, Relação

comercial.

How to cite this artical

Frogeri, Rorigo Franklin & Li, Yichao (2024). Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping

Scholarly Discourse and Future Research Directions. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations.

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD1 – Temathic Dossier – “Brazil - China Relations: The Rise Of Modern International

Order”. December 2024, pp. 145-174. https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0324.7.

Article received on 1 July 2024 and accepted for publication on 24 September 2024.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 145-174

Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

147

THREE DECADES OF BRAZIL-CHINA RELATIONS: MAPPING

SCHOLARLY DISCOURSE AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

RODRIGO FRANKLIN FROGERI

YICHAO LI

Introduction

China and Brazil established diplomatic relations on September 8, 1974 (MFA-Brazil,

2024). However, it was not until 1993 that the two countries began to significantly

strengthen their ties, marked by the visit of Chinese Vice-premier Zhou Rongji to Brazil

in May 1993 and the establishment of strategic partnership (MFA-Brazil, 2024). This visit

initiated a series of high-level engagements that underscored the growing importance of

their bilateral relationship (Cardoso, 2013; Oliveira, 2004). President Luiz Inácio Lula da

Silva's initial visit to China in 2004, aimed at strengthening trade and economic

cooperation (MFA-Brazil, 2024). The momentum was sustained with Chinese President

Hu Jintao's visit to Brazil in 2012, which underscored the necessity for enhanced

cooperation in sectors such as energy and infrastructure (Barker, 2013). In 2014,

Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff visited China, with a particular focus on trade and

investment (Busilli & Jaime, 2021).

During his initial presidency from 2003 to 2010, President Lula da Silva aimed to

strengthen relations with China, acknowledging the nation's burgeoning economic

influence (De Melo & Do Amaral Filho, 2015). President Lula da Silva visited China four

times during his tenure, and in 2009, China overtook the U.S. to become Brazil’s largest

trading partner (Rhys, 2012). This shift underscored the increasing economic

interdependence between the two countries. In 2012, the signing of the China-Brazil Free

Trade Agreement aimed to reduce tariffs and increase trade between the two nations.

The agreement went into effect in 2013, further solidifying their economic partnership

(Whalley & Medianu, 2013). Consequently, China has emerged as Brazil's largest trading

partner, with bilateral trade volumes expanding from $1.3 billion in 1993 to over $130

billion in 2023 (MDIC, 2024). Brazil has also become one of China's largest trading

partners in Latin America (Cunha, da Silva Bichara & Lélis, 2013; Hsiang, 2008).

Educational and technological cooperation between China and Brazil has also seen

substantial growth (Andrade & García, 2021). The establishment of bilateral cooperation

China-Brazil in areas as climate change (CGTN, 2018), energy (CNPEM, 2023), and

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 145-174

Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

148

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) (Sousa & Sousa, 2023) exemplifies

this collaboration. Research and development in areas such as renewable energy and

biotechnology, fostering innovation and technological advancement (Gandenberger &

Strauch, 2018). Additionally, China's investment in Brazil's infrastructure development

has been significant, particularly in the areas of transportation (Oliveira & Myers, 2021)

and energy (Busilli & Jaime, 2021). Agricultural cooperation has also been a cornerstone

of their relationship (Rhys, 2012). China has become one of Brazil's largest agricultural

export markets, and the two countries have collaborated on agricultural research and

development, strengthening their agricultural ties (Cunha, da Silva Bichara & Lélis, 2013;

Hsiang, 2008).

Cultural exchanges have been instrumental in fostering mutual understanding and

cooperation between China and Brazil (Leandro, 2023; Vérasi & Véras, 2013). The

Brazilian Cultural Program aims to enhance cultural ties and foster a deeper appreciation

of each nation’s heritage and traditions (CTG, 2021).

Both nations are members of the BRICS group (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South

Africa), which convenes annual summits to enhance cooperation in trade, investment,

and social development (Kirton & Larionova, 2022; Porto de Oliveira & Romano, 2022).

This multilateral cooperation has provided a platform for China and Brazil to collaborate

on global issues and enhance their bilateral relations (Leta, Machado & Canchumani,

2019).

However, the period from 2019 to 2023 saw a cooling of relations under the presidency

of Jair Bolsonaro (Jesus, 2022). During this period, China-Brazil relations experienced a

cooling as Bolsonaro and his international governance advisors aligned more closely with

the U.S. (Hirst & Valls Pereira, 2022). This shift highlighted the complexities and

challenges inherent in maintaining a stable and mutually beneficial relationship (Jesus,

2022).

In summary, the thirty years of China-Brazil relations have been marked by significant

diplomatic events, trade agreements, cultural exchanges, and bilateral cooperation. The

two countries have made substantial progress in strengthening their ties, particularly in

areas like trade, infrastructure development, and agricultural cooperation.

Despite the substantial bilateral relations between Brazil and China, we are particularly

interested in understanding the discussions within the scientific literature over the past

30 years and identifying new avenues for future research. To achieve this objective, we

conducted an extensive Systematic Literature Review and applied bibliometric laws and

lexical analyses to a total of 208 studies.

Methodology

Methodologically, the study is characterized by a qualitative approach and follows an

inductive logic. We used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-

Analyses

(PRISMA, 2020) as a method to guide the research (Page et. al., 2021). The

Retrieved in June 2024, from https://www.prisma-statement.org/.

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 145-174

Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

149

PRISMA 2020 statement is an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews (Page

et al., 2021). Transparent systematic reviews are an essential component of "good

research", as they provide reliability and enable the replicability of a study (Sarkis-

Onofre, Catalá-López, Aromataris & Lockwood, 2021).

The principal contributions to a field of knowledge or a specific topic are likely to be found

in the leading scientific journals (Webster & Watson, 2002). Therefore, we searched the

two main scientific journal indexing databases (SCOPUS and Web of Science) for terms

suggesting a relationship or cooperation between Brazil and China. In addition to applying

search strings, we read the abstracts of the studies to verify if there was any kind of

relation between the topics discussed in the publication and the Brazil-China relationship

or cooperation. Table 1 below shows the search string used in the databases and the

respective results.

Table 1. Review of academic databases

Platform

String

Results

Excluded*

Total

SCOPUS

(TITLE-ABS-KEY (China) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY

(Brazil) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (cooperation)

AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (relation))

161

127

Web of

Science

Brazil (Topic) and China (Topic) and

relation (Topic) and cooperation (All Fields)

Overall

234

192

*The excluded data refers to duplicate records and marginal subjects found on both search

platforms.

Source: Authors, adapted from SCOPUS and Web of Science.

We identified a total of 234 studies in the two databases. Of these, 39 were excluded due

to duplicate records, and 3 were excluded because their subjects were marginal and not

aligned with the Brazil-China relationship or cooperation. No temporal cutoff or filters by

document type and field of knowledge were applied. Thus, we obtained a total of 192

studies considered for analysis.

In addition to the previous searches, we applied the study “China and Brazil: Economic

Impacts of a Growing Relationship” (Jenkins, 2012) on the ConnectedPapers platform

(Frogeri, Diniz, Portugal Júnior & Piurcosky, 2023). ConnectedPapers allows only one

study to serve as the basis for the platform's analyses. The criteria adopted for selecting

Jenkins' (2012) article were as follows: (i) the study has been published for over ten

years, increasing the likelihood of it being cited more frequently than more recent

studies; (ii) the author, Rhys Jenkins, has a considerable number of publications involving

Brazil and China; (iii) the study was published in a journal with international visibility and

relevance (Journal of Current Chinese Affairs); and (iv) the central theme of the study

(the China and Brazil relationship) closely aligns with the search criteria adopted in

academic databases (Table 1).

Retrieved in June 2024, from https://www.connectedpapers.com/.

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VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

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December 2024, pp. 145-174

Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

150

The ConnectedPapers platform enables users to visually explore relevant studies

associated with a base document (Eitan, Smolyansky & Harpaz, 2021). The platform

generates a graph of connections between the base study and other publications in the

literature, with Semantic Scholar as the source. These connections are based on the

similarity of references cited in the studies—a concept known as Co-citation and

Bibliographic Coupling (Eitan et al., 2021; Strutynska, 2019). Figure 1 shows the

Connectedpapers graph based on Jenkins' study (2012).

In addition to generating the graph of connections, ConnectedPapers lists the studies

considered seminal and derivative according to the base study (e.g., Jenkins, 2012)

(Table 2 and Table 3).

Source: Generated by the authors via the ConnectedPapers platform. Available at:

https://www.connectedpapers.com/main/f75f0fa46fccb678e130c9d2cfb3291da8a3be4a/Chin

a-and-Brazil%3A-Economic-Impacts-of-a-Growing-Relationship/graph.

Figure 1. Connected papers graph based on Jenkins' study (2012)

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Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

151

Table 2. Prior works by ConnectedPapers based on Jenkins (2012)

Title

First

author

Year

Citations

Graph

citations

(Moreira, 2004)

M. Moreira

2004

208

(Lall et al., 2004)

S. Lall

2004

181

(Jenkins & Edwards, 2006)

R. Jenkins

2006

131

(Lall & Albaladejo, 2004)

S. Lall

2004

372

(Rodríguez et al., 2006)

J. Rodríguez

2006

128

(Rodrıguez-Clare et al., 2006)

A. Rodrıguez-

Clare

2006

152

(Lederman et al., 2008)

D. Lederman

2008

(Eichengreen et al., 2007)

Barry

Eichengreen

2007

172

(Greenaway et al., 2006)

D. Greenaway

2006

171

(Athukorala, 2009)

P. Athukorala

2009

200

Source: Generated by the authors via the ConnectedPapers platform.

Available at:

https://www.connectedpapers.com/main/f75f0fa46fccb678e130c9d2cfb3291da8a3be4a/China-

and-Brazil%3A-Economic-Impacts-of-a-Growing-Relationship/derivative.

Table 2 shows the studies considered seminal by the ConnectedPapers platform. The

number of citations of the study and the citations associated with the work in the

connection graph classifies the study as seminal. Subsequently, Table 3 presents the

articles considered derivatives—these are articles that cite many of the articles in the

graph. The derivative articles are studies on the field or recent relevant works inspired

by many articles (Eitan et al., 2021).

Table 3. Derivative works by ConnectedPapers based on Jenkins (2012)

Title

First

author

Year

Citations

Graph

references

(Jenkins, 2022)

R. Jenkins

2022

(Jenkins & Edwards, 2015)

R. Jenkins

2015

(Stanojevic et al., 2020)

S. Stanojevic

2020

(Xu, 2016)

Yan-Qing Xu

2016

(Barker, 2013)

C. Barker

2013

(Urdínez, 2017)

Francisco Urdínez

2017

(Cunha, Lélis, Haines, &

Franke, 2022)

André Moreira

Cunha

2022

(Sekakela, 2016)

Kedibonye Sekakela

2016

(Cunha et. al., 2013)

André Moreira

Cunha

2013

Source: Generated by the authors via the ConnectedPapers platform.

Available at:

https://www.connectedpapers.com/main/f75f0fa46fccb678e130c9d2cfb3291da8a3be4a/China-

and-Brazil%3A-Economic-Impacts-of-a-Growing-Relationship/derivative.

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 145-174

Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

152

We used a total of 208 documents in our analyses, combining 192 studies identified in

the SLR and references suggested by the ConnectedPapers platform. Figure 2 detailed

graphically the Systematic literature review procedure.

Figure 2. Systematic literature review procedure

Source: Developed by the authors based on PRISMA 2020 flow diagram.

For the lexical analyses, we employed Iramuteq software, version 0.7 alpha 2

. Iramuteq

allows various lexical analysis techniques on a textual corpus (Ramos, Lima & Amaral-

Rosa, 2019). Among these techniques is Descending Hierarchical Classification (DHC),

which categorizes text segments according to their vocabularies. DHC seeks to identify

classes of Elementary Context Units (ECUs) or Text Segments (TSs). An ECU exhibits

similar vocabularies within a class and distinct vocabularies between classes (Marchand

& Ratinaud, 2012).

Iramuteq also supports Correspondence Factorial Analysis (CFA), which utilizes a

Cartesian plane to represent the different words and variables associated with each DHC

Retrieved in June 2024, from https://iramuteq.org.

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Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

153

class. Simpler analyses, such as word clouds and Similarity Analysis, are also possible.

Similarity Analysis, while less complex, utilizes graph theory to depict the relationships

among words (Marchand & Ratinaud, 2012).

The textual corpus used in Iramuteq was extracted from the abstracts of 208 studies

selected through the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) and ConnectedPapers platform.

First, we used Mendeley software to register the metadata of the documents and extract

the study abstracts. Next, we exported the data from Mendeley in .RIS format and

imported it into the Rayyan platform

(Johnson & Phillips, 2018).

On the Rayyan platform, we analyzed the data and then exported it in .csv (Comma-

Separated Values) format for import into Microsoft Excel©. This process resulted in a

spreadsheet of the 208 documents with their metadata (Dataset available at Frogeri &

Li, 2024). To conduct lexical analyses using the Iramuteq software, we copied the

abstracts of 208 documents and pasted them into a new Microsoft Word© document.

This procedure produced an 89-page .DOCX file. Finally, the abstracts in Microsoft Word©

were standardized (Chaves, Santos, Santosa & Larocca, 2017).

The first step in standardising the textual corpus was to remove the copyright data that

is exported along with the abstracts (e.g. ©All authors or ©Elsevier Ltd.). Extracting

these data resulted in a total of 87 pages in the Microsoft Word© document. Next, we

searched for compound terms (e.g. International Relations, Foreign Policy, etc.) to adjust

them to the format that the Iramuteq software recognises. Words separated by spaces

are treated individually by the software; therefore, compound words need to be organised

with an underscore between the terms (e.g. International_Relations).

The term “international relations” was replaced with “international_relations”, “foreign

policy” with “foreign_policy”, “Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS)” with

“BRICS”, “Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)” with

“OECD”, “European Union (EU)” with “European_Union”, “Latin America” with

“Latin_America”, “U.S.” with “United_States”, “bilateral trade” with “bilateral_trade”,

“Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)” with “Belt_Road_Initiative”, and “South-South” with

“South_South”. The character “&” was also replaced with an underscore to prevent its

influence on the analyses (Camargo & Justo, 2013). The Find and Replace feature in

Microsoft Word was used to standardise the terms. After the standardisation procedure,

the textual corpus consisted of 87 pages and 49,374 words.

Finally, the data from the .DOCX document were exported to a .TXT file and encoded in

UTF-8 format. This configuration is required for the data to be imported into the Iramuteq

software (Salviati, 2014).

Analysis and discussions

To organize the study's content, we have divided the analyses into two sections. The first

section presents bibliometric analyses based on the Bibliometric Laws of Zipf and

Retrieved in June 2024, from https://www.rayyan.ai/.

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e-ISSN: 1647-7251

VOL 15 N.º 2, TD 1

Thematic Dossier

Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order

December 2024, pp. 145-174

Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

154

Bradford (Araújo, 2006; Frogeri et. al., 2023; Pritchard & Wittig, 1981). The second

section presents lexical analyses (Chaves et al., 2017; Marchand & Ratinaud, 2012).

Bibliometric Analysis

Our initial analysis focuses on the frequency of scientific publications over the past three

decades that discuss the relationship between Brazil and China. Graph 1 highlights that

the first publication occurred in 1999 (1) and reached its peak in 2016 (24). There is a

noticeable increase in scientific publications involving the two countries (Brazil and China)

starting from 2004.

The data on publications involving Brazil and China coincide with periods of political

transitions in Brazil and in the international relations between the two countries. The year

2002 saw the beginning of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's first term and the

subsequent strengthening of relations between the two countries (Lessa, 2010). The peak

in the number of publications occurred in 2016, following the impeachment of former

Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff and the ascension to power of her Vice-president,

Michel Temer (Silva & Pérez, 2019).

In 2016, scientific publications began to discuss the BRICS (e.g., Armesilla Conde, 2016;

De Andrade, 2016; Joshi & Ganeshan, 2016; Larionova, 2016; Muhr, 2016; Singh, 2016;

Tian, 2016), Mercosur and Chinese influence in Latin America (e.g., Bizzozero & Raggio,

2016; Selden, 2016; Urdinez, Burian, & De Oliveira, 2016; Xu, 2016), and South-South

cooperation (e.g., Amanor & Chichava, 2016; Zeng, Deng, Dong, & Hu, 2016).

The data in Graph 1 suggest that the number of scientific publications involving China

and Brazil increased during periods of political change in Brazil (e.g., 2016, during the

term of former President Michel Temer, and 2021-2023, during the term of former

President Jair Messias Bolsonaro). This increase in publications was particularly

noticeable when the change in Brazil's political leadership was not associated with

President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva or his successor, Dilma Rousseff. While we do not have

scientific evidence to explain this trend, it can be speculated that the profile of the newly

inaugurated president or their diplomatic stance in Brazil-China relations (e.g., Hirst &

Valls Pereira, 2022; Vazquez, 2022) may prompt investigations by the scientific

community.

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Three Decades of Brazil-China Relations: Mapping Scholarly Discourse and Future Research

Directions

Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Yichao Li

155

Next, we analyzed the main funding agencies for research. The analyses highlighted the

National Natural Science Foundation of China (5 - China), Economic Social Research

Council - ESRC (3 – European Union), European Research Council – ERC (3 - European

Union), and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development – CNPq (2

- Brazil). The data indicate a predominance of incentives from research funding agencies

in China and the European Union – these analyses suggest that there is room for Brazil

to advance in funding research that involves the country’s international interests,

particularly in Brazil-China relations.

Regarding the scientific journals with the most publications, the following stood out

(Table 4):

Table 4. Journals with the highest number of publications addressing China and Brazil

relations

Title

Country

Count

International Organisations Research Journal – ISSN: 1996-7845

Russia

Third world quarterly – 0143-6597

Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional – 0034-7329

Brazil

World development - 0305-750X

IDS bulletin – 0265-5012

Journal Of Contemporary China – 1067-0564

Global Policy – 1758-5880

Internationale Politik und Gesellschaft – 0945-2419

Germany

India quarterly – 0974-9284

India

Tydskrif vir Geesteswetenskappe – 0041-4751

South Africa

Economy of Regions – 2072-6414

Russia

Graph 1. Number of publications per year

111

344

7 7

1111

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

Source: Developed by the authors.

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East Asia – 1096-6838

Netherlands

Politische Vierteljahresschrift - 00323470

Germany

Economic Annals-XXI – 1728-6220

Ukraine

Space and Culture, India – 2052-8396

Journal of environmental management – 0301-4797

U.S.

Tropical geography/Redai Dili – 1001-5221

China

Oxford Development Studies – 1360-0818

Foresight – 1463-6689

POLITIKON – 0258-9346

World Economy and International Relations – 0131-2227

Russia

Note. The table only shows journals with a total of two or more publications.

Source: Developed by the authors.

The journal with the highest number of publications was the International Organisations

Research Journal of the Russian Federation. Its mission is to disseminate Russian and

international research on global governance, international cooperation, and international

multilateral institutions (e.g., G20, BRICS, OECD, World Bank, IMF, WTO, UN, among

others). The journal with the second highest number of publications was the Third World

Quarterly from the United Kingdom (UK), which aims to disseminate studies on the Global

South. The third journal is from Brazil and is titled "Revista Brasileira de Política

Internacional - RBPI" (Brazilian Journal of International Politics). The RBPI journal

publishes studies on topics related to International Relations in general (Politics,

Economy, Sociology, Security, History, Foreign Policy, Environment, and other relevant

issues on the contemporary international agenda).

Our analyses suggest that despite the journal with the highest number of publications

being from the Russian Federation, there is a predominance of UK journals discussing

topics related to the relationship and cooperation between Brazil and China.

Continuing with our bibliometric analyses, we observed which authors were the most

prolific (Table 5).

Table 5. Most prolific authors

Author

Country

Affiliation

Count

Papa, Mihaela

U.S.

Tufts University

Lessa, Antônio Carlos

Brazil

University of Brasilia

Cezne, Eric

Netherlands

Utrecht University

Note. Only authors with a number of publications equal to or greater than three are listed due to

the large number of authors with two or just one publication.

Source: Developed by the authors.

The author with the highest number of publications among the 208 studies analyzed was

Professor Mihaela Papa from Tufts University in the U.S. Professor Mihaela Papa published

studies on the BRICS (Han & Papa, 2022; Papa, Han & O’Donnell, 2023), India’s multi-

alignment with the Russia-India-China (RIC) triangle (O’Donnell & Papa, 2021) and the

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major emerging powers in sustainable development diplomacy (e.g., BRICS - Brazil,

Russia, India, China, South Africa | and BASIC - Brazil, South Africa, India, China) (Papa

& Gleason, 2012).

Following her, with three publications each, are Professor Antônio Carlos Lessa from the

University of Brasília – UNB (Brazil) and Eric Cezne from Utrecht University

(Netherlands). Professor Antônio Carlos Lessa presented studies on Brazil's foreign policy

with China in the 21st century (Becard & Lessa, 2021), the evolution of international

politics and the challenges this scenario presents for the field of International Relations

(Ramanzini Junior et al., 2023) and Brazil’s strategic partnerships with China during

Lula's administrations (Lessa, 2010). Professor Eric Cezne published studies on the

relations between Brazil and China with Africa (Hönke, Cezne & Yang, 2023), the

meanings and uses of South-South relations in mineral extraction in Mozambique (Cezne

& Hönke, 2022) and South-South investment in Guinea (Alencastro & Cezne, 2023).

Lexical Analysis

Figure 2. Word cloud of the abstracts

Note. The word cloud was generated for words

with a frequency greater than 50.

Source: Developed by the authors via Iramuteq.

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We began the lexical analyses with the simplest analysis, the word cloud.

Figure 3 graphically presents the words with the highest frequency among the 208

abstracts analyzed. The word "country" had the highest frequency (454), followed by

"china" (400), "BRICS" (308), "cooperation" (293), "economic" (290), "brazil" (289),

"development" (244), "global" (241), and "relation" (210). Other words appear less

frequently, with fewer than 200 occurrences.

The word cloud data suggest that the analyzed studies involve economic and

development aspects between Brazil and China, in addition to global discussions with a

focus on the BRICS group. However, the word cloud is limited in determining the context

of one or more studies by observing only the frequency of words. Therefore, we

proceeded with more robust analyses.

The next analysis performed was the Similarity Analysis (Figure 4), which allows for

identifying and visualizing the relationships between words or terms in a textual corpus

(Camargo & Justo, 2013).

Figure 4 shows how the words presented in the word cloud are interconnected within the

analyzed texts. The clusters presented with their respective keywords such as “country,”

Figure 3. Similarity analysis of the text corpus

Note. The similarity analysis was generated for words with a

frequency greater than 50.

Source: Developed by the authors via Iramuteq.

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“economic,” “BRICS,” “cooperation,” “Brazil,” and “China” suggest the topics or sub-

themes within the textual corpus.

The red cluster, at the top of the figure, highlights the words “China,” “Brazil,” “Russia,”

and “India” with thick branches leading to terms like “international,” “Africa,” “south,”

“trade,” and “relation,” suggesting that this cluster involves studies associated with

BRICS countries and the African continent (e.g., Barbosa et al., 2009; Deych, 2015;

Jenkins, 2022; Kamwengo, 2017).

The second cluster, in blue, has “country” as its keyword, serving more as a linking

cluster among the others. This cluster contains words with low frequency and less thick

connections between them. Moving on to the next cluster in Figure 3, the green cluster.

Nesse cluster, as palavras “economic” e “global” apresentam a maior frequêcnia. In this

cluster, the words “economic” and “global” have the highest frequency. The word

“economic” is associated with “investment,” “financial,” “growth,” “partnership,” and

indirectly linked to “strategic” through “partnership.” The strongest (thickest) link is

between “economic” and “global,” which in turn derives terms such as “governance” and

“power.” The green cluster suggests studies discussing economic aspects (e.g., Rana,

2019) and global governance (e.g., Cruz, 2015; Fues, 2007; Larionova, 2016; Pere,

2005; Shaw, Cooper & Chin, 2009).

Finally, the yellow cluster presents the words with the highest frequency “BRICS,”

“cooperation,” and “development.” The term “BRICS” has a strong association with the

word “cooperation,” suggesting discussions related to mutual cooperation among the

group’s countries in the pursuit of development (e.g., Iqbal, Yadav & Rahman, 2023;

Kubayi, 2022; Muhr, 2016; Trivedy & Khatun, 2023; Vazquez, 2021; Yarygina,

Lukashenko, Lee, Washington & Tsarev, 2021). The term “south-south” also appears in

this cluster, suggesting studies focused on Global South countries (e.g., Alencastro &

Cezne, 2023; Amanor, 2013; Amanor & Chichava, 2016; Cezne & Hönke, 2022; Gardini,

2021; Harrison, 2015; Kragelund, 2019; Malacalza, 2019; Vieira & Alden, 2011).

Although the similarity analysis allows for the grouping of the most frequent terms into

clusters, it is still not possible to understand in detail the context discussed in the studies

associated with each cluster. Therefore, we applied the Reinert Method or Descending

Hierarchical Classification (DHC), generating the following dendrogram (Figure 5).

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Figure 5. Dendogram of Reinert’s Method (Hierarquical Descendent Classification)

Source: Developed by the authors via Iramuteq.

Figure 5 details the four classes generated by the Hierarchical Descendant Classification

technique. Each class shares a similar vocabulary, and thus a common theme or topic. It

is important to note that the colours or words presented in the Hierarchical Descendant

Classification are not the same as those in the Similarity Analysis (Figure 3). his new

analysis uses a different algorithm from the Similarity Analysis.

The red and green classes contain the highest percentages of Elementary Context Units

(ECUs), with 37.7% and 33%, respectively. These classes are close together because

they are subdivisions of broader classes (classes 3 and 4). The analysis using the most

frequent words in each class is similar to the one conducted previously through the

Similarity Analysis. To deepen our analysis, we generated the "Corpus coleur" for the

HDC. The "Corpus coleur" file presents complete excerpts of the classes' keywords in an

.HTML format (Salviati, 2014), enabling contextual analysis of the classes.

Our first analysis concerns the Red Class (1) [words in red color] and the discussions

are presented in the following paragraphs.

The Red class (1) examines diverse facets of international politics and the dynamic

evolution of global relations. Red class objective is to provide a framework for

understanding recent transformations in international politics, focusing on the

ascendance of China and the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, it

underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches and highlights the

contributions of Latin American scholars, especially from Brazil, to global academic

debates.

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The Class discusses the strengthening of state roles in local, national, and global

economies and advocates for a robust system of South-South relations based on

revitalized third-world institutions and a framework that transcends Eurocentric views. It

examines the foundations of Brazilian diplomacy over the past half-century, focusing on

changes in the 1980s and 1990s up to the foreign policies of Lula's government (2003-

2009). The analysis recognizes advancements in Lula's foreign policy, especially towards

Africa, but questions whether Brazil's economy can sustain such policies.

Further, the Class explores the political and economic cooperation between Brazil and

African countries, providing an overview of trade and investment relations within the

region and with key partners. It examines the BRICS group's evolution from a financial

category to a political entity, focusing on their coordinated efforts on global economic

and political issues.

The class also addresses China's ideological engagement in Latin America since the

1950s, transitioning from cultural diplomacy and revolutionary rhetoric to pragmatic

economic initiatives. It evaluates the impacts of China's economic boom on Latin

American and Caribbean countries, analyzing post-global financial crisis trends in Sino-

Latin American economic relationships, with an emphasis on Brazil's experience. In

addition, the class assesses China's significant economic growth and its implications for

Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. It documents China's varied economic

involvement and its social, political, and environmental impacts on these regions.

The Class further examines China's and India's roles as major global economic players,

their impact on Sub-Saharan African countries, and the broader implications for

manufacturing and development in Latin America. It discusses the competitive challenges

posed by China and the policy options available for Latin American countries to address

these challenges.

Finally, the Red class addresses the BRICS' role in global governance, particularly after

the 2008 financial crisis, and the challenges faced by southern powers in reshaping the

existing power configurations. It evaluates the strategic implications of China's economic

performance for Latin American growth and development and examines the diplomatic

and economic relationships between Brazil and China in recent years.

Overall, the Red class provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolving dynamics in

international relations and the intricate economic and political interactions between major

global players and Latin American countries.

Next, we analysed the data from the Green class (2) [words in green color] discussing

the shifting dynamics of global economic and political influence, focusing on the BRICS

countries. It covers their emergence as significant players in the international system

and the implications for global governance. The 2008-2010 economic crisis is highlighted

as a pivotal moment prompting changes in the international order, necessitating broader

geopolitical cooperation and the inclusion of regional powers. The BRICS countries'

coordinated efforts within the G20 to push for global governance reforms are

emphasized. Additionally, the Class also explores diplomatic, political, and economic

interactions among BRICS nations, examining whether they operate independently or

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cohesively. It analyzes China's strategic partnerships with Latin American countries, the

asymmetry in these relationships, and the benefits to China.

Regional economic cooperation organizations' roles in reshaping trade groups and the

significance of trade among major global economies, including the U.S., China, and

European countries, are addressed. The class examines the motivations behind foreign

aid and the duality in managing development cooperation agendas within the BRICS and

the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). Russia's strategic partnerships and

economic relationships with Latin American countries, driven by domestic political

motivations and economic interests, are analyzed. India's engagement with Russia and

China through multilateral alignments like BRICS and the SCO, despite geopolitical

tensions, is also considered.

The Green class (2) concludes by discussing the broader implications of the BRICS

countries' rise for global power dynamics and potential systemic changes. While the

BRICS have achieved some success in establishing an alternative global order based on

cooperation, mutual respect, and a balance of interests, it is premature to assert the

creation of a fundamentally new type of international institution within the BRICS

structure at this stage.

The Lilac class (3) [words in Lilac color] covers a range of topics, including the

dynamics, agreements and educational systems between the BRICS countries and US

hegemony in Latin America from 2001 to 2015. The Class also examines economic and

social inequalities in BRICS, relations between the US and Brazil, and the impact of major

international institutions on higher education. Future scenarios of global governance are

explored. Legal frameworks for outer space and BRICS participation in international

treaties are discussed, especially cooperation between Brazil and China. Finally, the

potential of South-South cooperation for alternative development is analyzed, including

the role of GMOs and the OECD in risk assessment.

Overall, the Class offers a comprehensive analysis of BRICS interactions, legal structures

and educational systems, with an emphasis on cooperation, market dynamics and

political implications.

Finally, the Purple Class (4) [words in purple color] initially discuss the dynamics of

economic relationships and trade patterns between various countries, particularly

focusing on the influence of China’s economic ascent on Latin American countries. It

outlines how China's rise has created asymmetrical trade relationships, often positioning

Latin American countries as exporters of raw materials while importing manufactured

goods from China. The analysis highlights the increasingly regressive production and

trade specialization in Brazil due to its trade relations with China.

The Class also discusses the mutual trade structures between Botswana and China,

highlighting Botswana's export of primary products and its import of intermediate and

capital goods from China. Similarly, in Brazil, the relationship between its regressive

specialization and China’s international competitiveness is analyzed. The growth of

China’s market share often coincides with a decrease in Brazil’s share, impacting Brazil's

competitiveness in global markets, particularly in manufactured goods. The class

suggests that Latin American countries should diversify their export agendas towards

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China, develop new productive partnerships, and increase the competitiveness of their

firms.

Additionally, the Class examines the global trade network of oil crops, revealing Brazil’s

increasing market share and its impact on the U.S. It discusses the structure of the oil

crop trade network, noting China’s significant role despite risks from concentrated import

sources. The discussions into the Class recommends China to diversify its import sources,

deepen trade cooperation, and ensure the security of oil crop imports. Moreover, the

analysis of the global woody forest products trading network shows increased complexity

and changing trade positions, with China playing a crucial role.

In summary, the Purple class (4) provides a comprehensive analysis of the multifaceted

trade and economic relationships influenced by China’s rise, emphasizing the need for

strategic diversification and competitiveness enhancements in Latin American

economies.

To compile the discussions of our analyses, we created Table 6, in which the central

themes of each class are presented.

Table 6. Summarization of the Red, Green, Lilac, and Purple class

Class

Summary

Red

Class

The Red class examines international politics, focusing on the rise of China and the

strengthening of state roles in economies. It explores South-South relations, Brazilian

diplomacy, BRICS evolution, and China's impact on Latin America and Sub-Saharan

Africa. The class highlights local conditions' role in shaping China's economic effects

and compares geopolitical significance between Brazil and China.

Green

Class

The Green class discusses the BRICS countries' emergence as global players and their

role in global governance post the 2008-2010 economic crisis. It covers diplomatic

and economic interactions within BRICS, regional economic cooperation, motivations

behind foreign aid, and strategic partnerships, particularly focusing on China, Russia,

and India's relations with Latin America and each other.

Lilac

Class

The Lilac class explores interactions within BRICS, analyzing China's market influence

on Brazil and U.S. hegemony in Latin America. It discusses indirect expropriation in

investment agreements, and BRICS summits' achievements. The class addresses

economic and social inequalities, U.S.-Brazil relations, higher education's influence

by international institutions, and future global governance scenarios, including legal

frameworks for outer space and South-South cooperation.

Purple

Class

The Purple class focuses on economic relationships and trade patterns, especially

China's impact on Latin America. It highlights asymmetrical trade relationships,

regressive production in Brazil, and Botswana's import dynamics. The class discusses

Brazil's competitiveness, diversification of export agendas, global trade networks of

oil crops and woody forest products, and the relation between innovation efforts and

export performance. It also examines the significance of OECD and UN model

conventions in Canadian tax treaties.

Source: Developed by the authors.

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Now, considering our analyses and discussions, we suggest new avenues to be explored

in future research.

Emerging Geopolitical Dynamics and the Role of BRICS

− The inclusion of Iran, Egypt, Ethiopia, and the United Arab Emirates in the BRICS

membership and the resulting implications for global geopolitics.

− The strategic partnerships and diplomatic interactions between BRICS countries, and

how these are shaping regional and global power dynamics.

− The role of BRICS in overhauling global governance institutions like the UN Security

Council, and the challenges encountered in achieving these changes.

− Comparative analysis of the BRICS model of cooperation versus traditional Western-

led institutions like the G7.

Economic and Trade Relationships within BRICS

− The evolving trade and investment patterns between BRICS countries, and the impact

on economic development in these regions.

− Strategies adopted by BRICS countries to enhance their competitiveness and diversify

their export baskets, especially in the context of China's growing economic influence.

− The role of regional economic cooperation organizations within the BRICS framework,

and their impact on intra-BRICS trade and investment.

− Implications of BRICS initiatives like the New Development Bank and the BRICS

Contingent Reserve Arrangement for the global financial architecture.

South-South Cooperation and Alternative Development Models

− The potential of South-South cooperation, as exemplified by BRICS, to foster

alternative development pathways that challenge traditional North-South dynamics.

− The role of BRICS in promoting a multipolar world order and challenging Western-

centric models of development and global governance.

− A comparative analysis of the BRICS approach to development cooperation versus

traditional aid models advocated by the OECD and other Western-led institutions.

− Exploration of the BRICS countries' engagement with the Global South, including Africa

and Latin America, and the implications for regional integration and development.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives on BRICS

− An examination of the legal frameworks and international treaties that govern the

participation of BRICS countries in global governance, particularly in domains such as

outer space.

− Analysis of the social, political, and environmental impacts of BRICS countries'

economic rise, and the potential for sustainable development models.

− Exploring the role of education systems and workforce development within BRICS

countries, and their implications for global competitiveness.

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Conclusion

Despite the substantial bilateral relations between Brazil and China, we were particularly

interested in understanding the discussions within the scientific literature over the past

30 years and identifying new avenues for future research. Our results revealed that the

peak of publications involving Brazil and China occurred in 2016. The scientific journals

with the highest number of publications were the International Organisations Research

Journal (ISSN: 1996-7845) of the Russian Federation, followed by Third World Quarterly

(ISSN: 0143-6597) from the UK, Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional (ISSN: 0034-

7329) from Brazil, World Development (ISSN: 0305-750X), and IDS Bulletin (ISSN:

0265-5012), both from the UK. The most prolific authors were Professor Mihaela Papa

from Tufts University (U.S.), Professor Antônio Carlos Lessa from the University of

Brasília (UNB, Brazil), and Eric Cezne from Utrecht University (Netherlands).

After reviewing the bibliometric data, we focused on identifying new avenues for research

based on our SLR. Several key topics are frequently discussed in the context of China-

Brazil relations. Central themes include the rise of China as a global power and the

increasing role of states in economic affairs, with particular attention to how these

dynamics influence international politics. The strengthening of South-South relations,

particularly through diplomatic engagements facilitated by Brazil, is also a significant

area of interest. Additionally, the evolution of the BRICS grouping and China's economic

and political influence on Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa are important themes.

Our findings also highlight the importance of local conditions in shaping China's economic

effect and the geopolitical significance of Brazil and China.

Furthermore, we consider that expanding BRICS membership to include Iran, Egypt,

Ethiopia, and the United Arab Emirates could have significant implications for global

geopolitics, potentially altering the balance of power. Strategic partnerships and

diplomatic interactions among BRICS countries may increasingly shape regional and

global dynamics, influencing economic and political landscapes. Furthermore, BRICS

might play an essential role in advocating for reforms in global governance institutions,

despite facing substantial challenges, and could offer a distinct model of cooperation

compared to traditional Western-led institutions like the G7.

The evolving trade and investment patterns between BRICS countries could significantly

impact economic development within these regions. Strategies adopted by BRICS nations

to enhance competitiveness and diversify their export baskets, especially in light of

China's growing economic influence, may prove pivotal. Additionally, regional economic

cooperation organizations within the BRICS framework and initiatives like the New

Development Bank and the BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement might reshape the

global financial architecture and boost intra-BRICS trade and investment.

South-South cooperation has the potential to foster alternative development pathways

that challenge traditional North-South dynamics. BRICS may play a pivotal role in

promoting a multipolar world order and challenging Western-centric models of

development and global governance. Furthermore, a comparative analysis of the BRICS

approach to development cooperation versus traditional aid models promoted by the

OECD and other Western-led institutions, along with the engagement of BRICS countries

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with the Global South, including Africa and Latin America, could have significant

implications for regional integration and development.

Finally, interdisciplinary perspectives on BRICS include examinations of the legal

frameworks and international treaties that govern BRICS countries' participation in global

governance. Furthermore, analyses of the social, political, and environmental impacts of

BRICS countries' economic rise, along with explorations of their education systems and

workforce development, could shed light on potential sustainable development models

and implications for global competitiveness.

Despite the rigorous methodological procedures followed in this study, certain limitations

must be considered. Our Systematic Literature Review was limited to the SCOPUS and

Web of Science databases, which do not cover all scientific journals. Furthermore, our

search was restricted to descriptors in English, excluding studies published in Portuguese,

Spanish, or Chinese. We also consider the absence of discussions on the literature

involving BRICS and the G20 to be a limitation of this study.

Therefore, in addition to the themes we identified as research opportunities, we suggest

that future studies conduct a Systematic Literature Review using descriptors in various

languages and incorporating other databases (e.g., SciELO.org, EBSCOhost, JSTOR).

Finally, we suggest that the literature on the G20 and BRICS groups be considered in

future studies.

Data available

Frogeri, R. F., & Li, Y. (2024). Dataset - Systematic Literature Review of China-Brazil

Relations (1993-2023): Exploring New Research Directions [Data set].

Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12665713

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