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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
Vol. 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier – Brazil-China relations:
The rise of modern International Order
December 2024
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EDITORIAL
FRANCISCO JOSÉ LEANDRO
fleandro@um.edu.mo
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1443-5828
PhD in political science and international relations from the Catholic University of Portugal in
2010, and habilitation from ISCTE–University Institute of Lisbon in 2022. From 2016 to 2017,
Prof. Leandro took part in a post-doctoral research programme on state monopolies in China —
One belt, one road studies. In 2014, 2017 and 2020, he was awarded an Institute of European
Studies in Macau (IEEM) Academic Research Grant, which is a major component of the Asia-
Europe Comparative Studies Research Project. From 2014 to 2018, he was Programme
Coordinator at the Institute of Social and Legal Studies, Faculty of Humanities at the University of
Saint Joseph in Macau. From 2018 to 2023 he was Associate Dean of the Institute for Research
on Portuguese-Speaking Countries at the City University of Macau. He is currently Associate
Professor with Habilitation in International Relations in the Faculty of Social Sciences at the
University of Macau (China). His most recent publications are: The Belt and Road Initiative: An
Old Archetype of a New Development Model (2020), Palgrave Macmillan; Geopolitics of Iran
(2021), Palgrave Macmillan; The Handbook of Special Economic Zones (2021), IGI Global;
Disentangled Vision on Higher Education: Preparing the Generation Next (2023), Peter Lang
Publishers; The Palgrave Handbook of Globalization with Chinese Characteristics (2023), Palgrave
Macmillan; Changing the Paradigm of Energy Geopolitics: Resources and Pathways in the Light of
Global Climate Challenges (2023), Peter Lang Publishers; Portuguese-speaking Small Island
Developing States: The development Journeys of Cabo Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, and
Timor-Leste (2023), Palgrave Macmillan; The Palgrave Handbook on China-Europe-Africa
Relations: Legacies and the New International Order (2024), Palgrave Macmillan.
KAIAN LAM
kaianlam@um.edu.mo
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9050-0804
Assistant Professor in international relations at the University of Macau (China). Prof. Lam’s
current research is aligned with International Political Sociology. She employs aesthetic strategies
to study storytelling and self-styled narration in world politics and is well versed in ethnographic
and arts-based methods. She received a PhD in African Studies from ISCTE – University Institute
of Lisbon in 2020 and holds degrees from the University of Lisbon, the Catholic University of
Portugal, and the University of Macau. She is currently undertaking a project on “Interpreting
Europe: Sonic politics and the affective foundation of multilingual negotiations” concerning the
mundane organizational life of the European Union. Her latest Africa-focused project is entitled
“Unnarratizing China-Angola relations: Visual memory, mediating bodies, and bilateral
infrastructures of feeling.” Her papers have been published in journals including Mediterranean
Politics, Island Studies Journal, Visual Ethnography, and she has published reviews in the Journal
of Peasant Studies, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, and African Studies Review
(www.kaianlam.com).
YICHAO LI
liyichao@zjnu.edu.cn
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8588-1043
Ph.D. from the Institute for Research on Portuguese-speaking Countries, City University of
Macau, China. Dr. Lam also holds a master’s degree in comparative civil law (in Chinese) from
the University of Macau (China) in 2018. From 2021 to 2022, she was a postdoctoral researcher
at the Centre for International Studies (ISCTE-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal). Since 2023, she has been
an assistant research fellow at the Institute of African Studies, Zhejiang Normal University,
China. Her research interests are the Belt and Road Initiative, Portuguese-speaking countries,
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
Editorial - Francisco José Leandro, Kaian Lam, Yichao Li
4
and Sino-African relations. Her most recent publications are: Leandro, F. J. & Li, Y. (2023).
Spatial Development Initiatives: The Case of African Portuguese Speaking Countries. In Duarte,
P. A. B., Albuquerque, R., Tavares, A. M. L. (eds.). Portugal and the Lusophone World: Law,
Geopolitics and Institutional Cooperation, Palgrave Macmillan. Costa, C. M. & Li, Y. (2023). China
and European Union countries: Do Chinese partnerships boost cooperation results? Janus.net, e-
journal of international relations. Vol. 14, No. 1, TD1–Thematic dossier “European Union-China
relations”, September 2023.
How to cite this editorial
Leandro, Francisco José, Lam, Kaian & Li, Yachao (2024). Editorial, Brazil - China Relations: The
Rise Of Modern International Order. Janus.net, e-journal of international relations. VOL 15 N.º 2,
TD1 – Temathic Dossier – “Brazil-China Relations: The Rise Of Modern International Order”.
December 2024, pp. 3-12. https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.DT0324.ED .
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
Editorial - Francisco José Leandro, Kaian Lam, Yichao Li
5
BRAZIL-CHINA RELATIONS: THE RISE OF MODERN
INTERNATIONAL ORDER
FRANCISCO JOSÉ LEANDRO
KAIAN LAM
YICHAO LI
Acknowledgement
The editors would like to convey our gratitude to the individual authors for their invaluable
contributions and to all the reviewers for their patience, insightful comments and
suggestions. As this publication is the first of a series of publications on China and the
Portuguese-speaking Countries edited by the Department of Governance and Public
Administration - Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Macau (China), we would
like to thank Professor Brigida Brito (Autonoma University of Lisbon, Portugal), for
extending this invitation to edit this especial issue and also the following project
facilitators: André Silva, (Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil); Carlos
Schonerwald (Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil); Carmen Amado Mendes
(Macau Scientific and Cultural Center, Lisbon, Portugal); Daniel Morales Ruvalcaba (Sun
Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China); Fernanda Ilhéu (Lisbon School of Economics and
Management (ISEG), Portugal); João Simões (City University of Macau, China); Luís
Bernardino (Autonoma University of Lisbon, Portugal); Luis Pires (University of Macau,
China); Paulo Duarte (University of Minho, Portugal); Paulo Gonçalves (Independent
Researcher, Portugal); Pedro Steenhagen (Fudan University, China); Rodrigo Flanklin
(University Centre of the South of Minas (UNIS-MG), Brazil): and Vera Borges (City
University of Macau, China).
Why are Brazil-China Relations Important?
“The Brazil Federation is neither sufficiently small to be ignored, nor
sufficiently strong to leverage the global stage on its own. However, Brazil is
an important player in South-South relations, and China discerningly values
that role” (Leandro, 2024).
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
Editorial - Francisco José Leandro, Kaian Lam, Yichao Li
6
Brazil-China relations are an unavoidable topic in the context of international relations.
They are both major developing countries and emerging markets in the Global South and
have broad common strategic interests (MFA-PRC, 2024). This bilateral relationship is
the result of a prolonged process, dating from the establishment of diplomatic relations
in 1974. The physical distance between Brazil and China is another factor that has tended
to bring them together, as the two countries do not bear the weight of historical disputes
or rivalries. They are both undeniably important in their respective regional
environments, and both play a relevant role in their neighbors’ development. The
relationship “(…) has been built around two main lines of action: (1) joint efforts to
promote economic development; (2) multilateral collaboration in search of a multipolar
world” (Santoro, 2022, p. xi).
The idea behind this special issue is also associated with the “International as an
Everyday Practice”. Within the field of international studies, the everyday can be read as
a text that illuminates central practices at the heart of the production of “international”
representations, the reproduction of relations of domination — gendered, economic,
social — at the international “level,” as well as the consumption of “international” goods,
ideas and norms” (Guillaume, 2011). In the light of this, what is current practice in the
context of Brazil-China relations?
Brazil and China are regional pivot states, are states displaying interregional interests –
namely in Africa - are among the largest developing economies, are both members of
large economic organizations such as BRICS+ and MERCOSUR, are perceived as key
states in the context of the Global South, and have been developing a strong bilateral
commercial relationship. In 2000, China became Brazil’s largest trading partner in Asia
and Brazil’s position in Mercosur has not been overlooked by China. Since 2009, China
has been its largest trading partner and in 2012, it became the main supplier of products
imported by Brazil (GOV.BR, 2024). In fact, the sector that best illustrates their
commercial complementarity is the agricultural sector as Brazil contributes decisively to
China's food security — an issue of strategic importance for the Chinese government and
people. In 1974, “China accounted for 0.24% of Brazilian exports but by 2023, China was
the major destination for Brazilian exports, accounting for 30.7% of foreign sales” (CEBC,
2024, p. 19). Indeed, in 2023, approximately a quarter of all imports of agricultural
products in China came from Brazil.
Brazil was the first country to establish a strategic partnership with China in 1993. As
Table 1 illustrates, this partnership has been one of the most dynamic and has been
deepened five times. Particularly important is the fact that the strategic partnership was
upgraded to a comprehensive strategic partnership in 2012. This made Brazil the first
country in Latin America and the Caribbean to establish such a partnership with China
(Xinhua, 2023).
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
Editorial - Francisco José Leandro, Kaian Lam, Yichao Li
7
Table 1- China-Brazil Partnerships and Economic Spaces
China and
Brazil
1993
Strategic Partnership
（战略伙伴关系）
In July 2024, Brazil
revealed a plan to
join the Belt and
Road initiative
(MoU) (SCMP,
2024).
Brazil is a leading
state in the
Southern
Common Market
(Mercosur)
2009
Further strengthened
2012
Comprehensive strategic
partnership
（全面战略伙伴关系）
2014
Further strengthened
2019
Strengthened and deepened
2023
Deepened
Source: Authors
The Brazil-China High-Level Commission for Coordination and Cooperation (COSBAN)
was established in 2004. This has played a significant role in strengthening bilateral
relations and in promoting dialogue and cooperation in various fields. Furthermore, in
2014, the China-Brazil Foreign Ministerial-Level Comprehensive Strategic Dialogue was
created, and four of these have been held to date. Technology, the digital sector, aviation
(Embraer), infrastructure, agriculture, mining, energy and sustainability are the leading
sectors in Sino-Brazilian relations. Brazil has one of the world’s largest offshore oil and
gas reserves, and cooperation in the area of green energies, including hydrogen and
electric vehicles, is extremely promising.
Two projects are likely to have a significant impact on the global south. One is the Brazil-
Peru Transcontinental (Bi-Oceanic) Railway, in which China continues to be involved,
despite the challenges. “The Chinese side became the leading player in the development
of the basic feasibility study of the Brazil–Peru Transcontinental Railway project (…) the
Chinese state-owned company China Railway Eryuan Engineering Group (CREEC) was in
charge of preparing the study (…). Meanwhile, Brazil and Peru assigned governmental
institutions to perform supporting tasks and review the inception, interim and final
reports prepared by the Chinese company (MOU on the Joint Conduction of the Basic
Feasibility Studies for a Bioceanic Railway Connection 2015)” (Dourado, 2022). The
second project is the China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program (CBERS), which is
emblematic as it is the first high technology project in the context of South-South
cooperation.
Brazil-China relations also have a multilateral dimension, particularly in the context of
the WTO, G20 and BRICS+. Both strongly oppose unilateralism, protectionism and the
decoupling and rupture of industrial chains. They defend inclusive economic globalization
and the promotion of an open world economy. The relations between the two countries
therefore also reflect China’s interest in Latin America: “China has always given priority
to its relations with Brazil in its overall diplomacy and its diplomacy with Latin America,
and supports Brazil in promoting state development and national rejuvenation (China
Daily, 2024).” China regards Brazil as an important member of BRICS+ and Brazil uses
this organization to leverage its international bargaining power and it hosted the G20 in
2024. Its agenda priorities were aligned with China’s global interests: (1) The fight
against hunger, poverty and inequality; (2) The three dimensions of sustainable
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
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8
development (economic, social and environmental); (3) Reform of the global governance
institutions. Brazil has adopted a hedging position, seeking to maintain a position close
to China, but without producing adverse effects on the US - China Great Game. In fact,
although Brazil did condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine, President Lula’s
government expressed its neutrality in the conflict, and denied direct material support to
Ukraine. In May 2024, China and Brazil released "Common Understandings Between
China and Brazil on Political Settlement of the Ukraine Crisis". Thus far, this has gained
widespread support (110 countries) (RUBRYKA, 2024). In addition, Brazil seeks China's
support for its candidacy to a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and Brazil
shares most of China’s views on the reform of the United Nations.
Structure of this Special Issue
This special issue is divided into two sections. The first consists of 15 articles and the
second contains four short articles (these short articles included the participation of junior
researchers). The articles cover issues such as: economics, partnerships, multilateralism,
political relations, gender, health, technology, international security, foreign policy, the
Lusophone world, climate change and energy – which we believe is part of the
“International as an Everyday Practice”. The range of themes is designed to encourage
more research on this topic, as well as contribute to decoding the current scholarly
discourse on Sino-Brazilian relations, and also anticipate the future state of affairs
between Brazil and China.
The first paper by Rodrigo Franklin Frogeri, Pedro dos Santos Portugal Júnior,
Francisco José Leandro, Fabrício Pelloso Piurcosky, and Sheldon William Silva
presents an overview and a critical analysis of international relations between Brazil and
China in areas of mutual interest to the two countries. The authors suggest that it is
important for Brazil and China to develop initiatives reflecting mutual and sovereign
interests and that are aimed at establishing environmentally sustainable trade with
reduced asymmetry. The second article, by António Tavares, Asya Gasparyan, Cátia
M. Costa, José Palmeira, Paulo Afonso B. Duarte, and Sabrina Evangelista
Medeiros, examines the role of bilateralism, multilateralism and mini-multilateralism in
Sino-Brazilian relations. The authors focus on the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank,
the New Development Bank, the BRICS, the Basic Four, and the G20 They conclude that
the interplay between bilateralism, multilateralism and mini-multilateralism will play an
increasing and complementary role in Sino-Brazilian relations.
The article by Mohamad Zreik focuses on how the BRICS, in particular, serve as a
platform for enhancing relations between China and Brazil and explores the future
development prospects within this framework. The author argues that the strengthened
partnership between China and Brazil not only promotes mutual development but also
facilitates broader South-South cooperation, positioning the BRICS as a crucial player in
shaping a multipolar world order.
In January 2023, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva was re-elected President of Brazil and began
his third term. The article by Pedro Steenhagen focuses on why the reform of global
governance was (re)prioritized in Brazil’s foreign policy during the first year of “Lula 3”.
The author seeks to give readers a better understanding of the importance of this for an
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e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
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examination of the interactions between domestic and international politics and the
demands of Brazilian foreign policy.
Maintaining the focus on Brazilian foreign policy, the article by Florencia Rubiolo and
Gonzalo Fiore Viani provides an in-depth analysis of Jair Bolsonaro’s foreign policy
towards China from 2018 to 2022 and the first year of Lula da Silva’s administration in
2023. The focus is on the diplomatic and economic dimensions of their respective
approaches towards China, highlighting both changes and continuities. The authors
believe that China retained a crucial role in Brazil’s economic agenda and that the bilateral
and multilateral relationship was restored when Lula returned to power in 2023.
The article by Xuheng Wang and Carmen Amado Mendes uses Guanxi theory as the
theoretical framework for an analysis of China's attitude and policies towards Brazil
during and after the Covid-19 pandemic. The authors point out that, because China
prefers to maintain the existing mutually beneficial model, the Lula government
smoothed over the legacy of tense Sino-Brazilian relations inherited from the Bolsonaro
government and has promoted the expansion of China-Brazil interaction to more and new
areas.
Over the past three decades, China and Brazil have developed a robust and multifaceted
relationship characterized by cooperation across various sectors. The article by Rodrigo
Franklin Frogeri and Yichao Li is based on an extensive Systematic Literature Review
that also applied bibliometric and lexical analyses to a total of 208 studies. The
bibliometric analyses revealed that the peak of publications covering Brazil and China
was in 2016. The authors further identify four central research lines that could be
developed in future studies.
The article by Luis Gouveia draws on social identity theory to analyze official discourse
and mass media posts relating to Brazil's position on the war in Ukraine. The author
concludes that Brazil attempted to gain status by utilizing a ‘creativity’ strategy.
Meanwhile, Brazil also faced a dilemma as to whether to capitalize on its image within
the BRICS or maintain a ‘do-good’ state image.
Natalia Ceppi and Gisela Pereyra Doval examine the rise of China in Brazil's
diplomatic agenda in the 21st century, with a focus on existing commercial interests.
Based on a qualitative methodological design, the authors state that identification of the
same objective, i.e. generating a business agenda with a medium- to long-term impact,
means that strategic cooperation between China and Brazil is sustained, at least in
economic terms and mainly in the energy sector.
Further exploring the evolving multifaceted engagement between China and Brazil,
Lorhan de Oliveira Pereira and Kai Yin Allison Haga focus on the catalytic role of the
iron ore trade in shaping the strategic partnership. The authors argue that the
partnership, fueled by a mutual reliance on iron ore, exemplifies how resource-driven
partnerships can evolve into strategic alliances that have significant implications for
global politics and economics.
The article by Baiba Biteniece and Dana Dūda examines the strategic collaboration
between China and Brazil in the renewable wind energy sector. Drawing on the theoretical
framework of Liberal and Economic Interdependence, the authors consider that China's
strategic engagement drives collaboration and growth in the wind energy sector in Brazil,
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
Editorial - Francisco José Leandro, Kaian Lam, Yichao Li
10
and that there are mutual interdependencies between the two countries. However, these
interdependencies are asymmetrical, resulting in greater dependencies for Brazil
compared to China.
João Simões and Daniel Veras draw on Cooper’s (1989) framework on the international
promotion of languages to explore Brazil’s role in promoting the Portuguese language
globally. The authors investigate the intertwined political, economic and cultural
motivations behind language promotion initiatives. They emphasis the need for Brazil to
effectively leverage Macau’s strategic position to capitalize on these opportunities.
Teli Chen, Suzana Lopes Salgado Ribeiro, and Francisco José Leandro investigate
the reversal of gender disparities in enrolment in higher education in Brazil and China.
The authors explore factors contributing to this transition, such as feminist movements,
the legal framework, economic development, the expansion of higher education, and
demographic factors.
In recent decades, health has become a top priority in global governance. Anabela
Rodrigues Santiago and Carlos Eduardo de Andrade Lima da Rocha therefore
adopt a perspective based on bilateralism to outline both China’s and Brazil’s positioning
in relation to health diplomacy between 2013 and 2023 and to analyze their articulation
within the context of the BRICS. The authors believe that both Brazil and China have
leveraged health diplomacy to strengthen their global influence. Also, that they use
multilateral platforms like BRICS to strengthen collaboration in order to enhance their
soft power and contribute to global health governance.
The Zone of Peace and Cooperation of the South Atlantic (ZOPACAS) established in 1986
aims to promote regional cooperation and maintain peace and security in the region.
António Gonçalves Alexandre explores how ZOPACAS can contribute to improving
maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea. The author states that ZOPACAS appears to be
an opportunity for Brazil to expand its role in the Gulf of Guinea, especially as it is seeking
to increase its influence in the international arena and on countries in the Global South.
The second part of this special issue consists of four articles by junior scholars. The first,
by Alberto J. Lebron and Carlos M. Martin, presents their view that empirical evidence
is crucial to complement political considerations in their research. The authors measure
the overall effects of Trade-in-Value-Added (TiVA) exchanges with both China and US on
the Brazilian labor market, and determine which countries/industries might become the
most optimal choice for Brazil in terms of TiVA.
The article by André Luiz Reis da Silva, Juli Arusiewicz Berta, and Maiara de
Almeida Cardozo Nunes analyzes relations between Brazil and China since 2003 to
identify major lines of continuity and change. The authors argue that changes in Brazilian
Foreign Policy, especially in terms of how Brazil perceives its position in the world and its
relationship with the major powers, have conditioned relations with China since 2003,
causing fluctuations in the political relationship despite their growing economic
interaction.
Henoch Gabriel Mandelbaum dissects Macau's role in evolving China-Brazil relations
over twenty-five years. The author draws on soft power and paradiplomacy frameworks
to explore how China has utilized Macau as an instrument of attraction in its dealings
with Brazil. The author concludes that, while Macau has made significant strides in
JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations
e-ISSN: 1647-7251
VOL 15, N.º 2, TD1
Thematic Dossier
Brazil-China relations: The rise of modern International Order
December 2024, pp. 3-12
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enhancing China-Brazil relations, several challenges remain, and addressing these is
crucial in order to fully capitalize on Macau's strategic position.
The last article, by Chen Jianfei, explores opportunities, challenges, and prospects for
enhanced cooperation between China and Brazil on climate action and sustainable
development. The author states that, despite the challenges presented by domestic
politics and external pressures, Brazil and China have built common ground based on
their interest in protecting vital and important ecosystems and solving climate change
issues.
Why this Special Issue?
This special issue on Brazil-China relations marks a number of milestones: the 50th
anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between Brazil and China, the
31st anniversary of the establishment of their strategic partnership, the 20th anniversary
of the establishment of the COSBAN, the 10th anniversary of the establishment of the
China-Brazil Foreign Ministerial-Level Comprehensive Strategic Dialogue, and the 20th
anniversary of the creation of the Brazil-China Business Council (CEBC). It is the result
of meaningful collaboration between scholars from the University of Macau (China), the
Institute of African Studies, Zhejiang Normal University (China), and the Autonoma
University of Lisbon (Portugal). As such, it contains contributions from renowned
international scholars as well as from junior researchers publishing for the first time.
We believe that it is important to support young and emerging scholars from China and
the Portuguese-speaking countries and regions and the special issue is intended to
provide a safe space for critical learning and discussion. Several of the research projects
have involved graduate students, providing exposure for young scholars and
incorporating them within the academic community.
Our initiative brings together experts, scholars and students interested in Brazil and its
international forays, and examines what the future may hold for emerging partners
hailing from as far away as China. The contributing scholars have adopted qualitative,
quantitative and mixed method approaches. The special issue attracted interest from
International Relations departments, and we are pleased to have received high-quality
proposals from scholars of cognate disciplines. All of the articles have been double peer
reviewed and all are focused on Brazil and/or China and their global connections.
This special issue proposes new epistemologies for the study of Brazil with a focus on its
world engagement preparedness. It also examines novel conceptualizations that advance
our knowledge of Brazil-China relations. The studies are generally up-to-date and
pertinent, and they consolidate Lusophone perspectives on “the rise of modern
international”. Overall, the studies agree on the need to adapt western epistemologies in
view of the multifaceted realities on the ground and to problematize universal
assumptions about international systems and operations. The authors highlight the
importance of knowledge production from within the Global South and its subsequent
international dissemination. They show that expertise on Brazil and the South Atlantic is
transferable and can benefit debates on China, Brazil-China Relations, and International
Relations, broadly defined. This collection of articles is important in promoting greater
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awareness of world connectivity and interdependence, while also pointing the way
forward for area studies scholars.
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